Evolutionary Developmental Perspectives on Male Androphilia in Humans

Abstract

Androphilia refers to predominant sexual attraction to adult males, whereas gynephilia refers to predominant sexual attraction to adult females. Male androphilia represents an evolutionary paradox because: (1) it appears to have a genetic component, yet (2) it compromises reproduction, and (3) cross-cultural and archaeological evidence suggest that male–male sexual behavior has persisted for millennia. The manner in which male androphilia is expressed varies cross-culturally. Sex-gender congruent male androphiles occupy the gender role typical of their sex, behave in a relatively masculine manner, and identify as “men.” In contrast, transgender male androphiles often behave in a highly effeminate manner and often identify as neither “men” nor “women.” Both forms are characterized by many of the same biodemographic and developmental correlates, which indicates that they share a common etiological basis despite being different in appearance. Evidence suggests that the transgender form was likely ancestral to the sex-gender congruent form. Research has repeatedly furnished support for the kin selection hypothesis in Samoa where transgender male androphiles (fa’afafine) exhibit elevated avuncular tendencies compared to women and gynephilic men. Several studies also indicate that the avuncular cognition of fa’afafine is more adaptively designed, compared to women and gynephilic men. VanderLaan et al. (J Gay Lesbian Mental Health 15:1–16, 2011b) suggested that traits of elevated childhood separation anxiety in (pre)androphilic boys may be a developmental precursor of an evolved predisposition for prosocial tendencies, particularly kin-directed altruism such as elevated avuncularity. The available evidence is limited, but consistent with this hypothesis.