Evolution of Mating Behavior in the Genus Apis and an Estimate of Mating Frequency in Apis cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Abstract

Four colonies of Apis cerana F. were analyzed with DNA markers to determine the degree of polyandry in this species. The average observed paternity frequency was 18.0 (range, 14-27), the average worker relatedness 0.29, and the average effective paternity frequency 12.0. A. cerana is therefore similar to A. mellifera and other species of Apis in that the level of polyandry is extreme. A phylogeny of the genus was used as the basis for a comparative analysis of mating behavior. This analysis suggests that the enlarged penile bulb, mucus glands, and excess sperm production found in the cavity nesting species ( A. cerana, A. koschevnikovi , and A. mellifera ) are likely to be derived characters, whereas the lack of mucus glands and reduced penile bulb observed in the open-nesting species is likely to be basal.