Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental toxicant, capable of reducing mitochondrial ATP production and promoting the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with resultant oxidative stress conditions. The ovary and testis are the primary gonads in which female gametes (oocytes) and male gametes (spermatozoa), estrogen and testosterone are produced. These organs are particularly susceptible to Cd cytotoxicity due to their high metabolic activities and high energy demands. In this review, epidemiological and experimental studies examining Cd toxicities in gonads are highlighted together with studies using zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), and natural substances to reduce the effects of Cd on follicular genesis and spermatogenesis. Higher blood concentrations of Cd ([Cd]b) were associated with longer time-to-pregnancy in a prospective cohort study. Cd excretion rate (ECd) as low as 0.8 μg/g creatinine was associated with reduced spermatozoa vitality, while Zn and Se may protect against spermatozoa quality decline accompanying Cd exposure. ECd > 0.68 µg/g creatinine were associated with an increased risk of premature ovarian failure by 2.5-fold, while [Cd]b ≥ 0.34 µg/L were associated with a 2.5-fold increase in the risk of infertility in women. Of concern, urinary excretion of Cd at 0.68 and 0.8 μg/g creatinine found to be associated with fecundity are respectively 13% and 15% of the conventional threshold limit for Cd-induced kidney tubular effects of 5.24 μg/g creatinine. These findings suggest that toxicity of Cd in primary reproductive organs occurs at relatively low body burden, thereby arguing for minimization of exposure and environmental pollution by Cd and its transfer to the food web.
Highlights
Introduction iationsCadmium (Cd), a heavy metal in the IIB group of the periodic table, was first discovered as an impurity in zinc carbonate [1,2,3]
The aim of this review is to provide an update of knowledge arising from recent epidemiological and experimental studies concerning ovarian and testicular toxicities of Cd
Evidence for adverse effects of environmental exposure to Cd on male fecundity comes from studies in which semen quality parameters were examined using the criteria prescribed by the World Health Organization [49]
Summary
The total diet study, known as the “market basket survey”, is a food safety monitoring program that has been used to estimate intake levels of various contaminants and identify their sources in the human diet. Meat (excluding offal) of bovine animals, sheep, pig, and poultry. Fresh herbs, celeriac, and the following fungi: Agaricus bisporus (common mushroom), Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom), Lentinula edodes (Shiitake mushroom). Dietary intake levels of Cd, estimated from total diet studies, vary widely among populations. The most significant dietary sources of Cd include foods that are frequently consumed in large quantities, such as rice, potatoes, wheat, leafy salad vegetables, and other cereal crops
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