Abstract
It is well known that atmospheric mercury (Hg) contaminates air, water, soil, and living organisms, including trees. Therefore, tree bark can be used for the environmental assessment of atmospheric contamination because it absorbs heavy metals. This study aimed to establish a new biomonitoring for the assessment of atmospheric Hg pollution. Reporting on atmospheric Hg contamination in an artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) area in North Gorontalo, Indonesia, we calculated the total weight of Hg (THg) and quantitatively measured the concentrations of Hg in the tree bark of Mangifera indica, Syzygium aromaticum, Terminalia catappa, and Lansium domesticum. The THg of Hg in the M. indica tree bark samples ranged from not detected (ND) to 74.6 μg dry weight (DW) per sample. The total Hg in the tree bark of S. aromaticum, T. catappa, and L. domesticum ranged from ND to 156.8, ND to 180, and ND to 63.4 μg DW, respectively. We concluded that topography significantly influences the accumulation of Hg together with local weather conditions. A mapped distribution of the THg suggested that the distribution of THg in the tree bark was not affected by the distance to the amalgamation site. Therefore, tree bark can be used as biomonitoring of atmospheric Hg contamination for the assessment of ASGM areas.
Highlights
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), which provides income to many poor communities in developing countries, such as Indonesia, uses several gold extraction methods that use mercury (Hg)
12–18 cm2 of each sample was crushed to a fine powder with a powder mill (Varian PM2005 m, Osaka Chemical Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan) to produce homogeneous samples for particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) analysis
Our results showed that there was a high level of heterogeneity in the total weight of Hg (THg) in the bark of both the naturally grown and cultivated tropical tree species we studied
Summary
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), which provides income to many poor communities in developing countries, such as Indonesia, uses several gold extraction methods that use mercury (Hg). The International Labor Organization estimates that there are currently around 13 million artisanal miners in 55 countries [1]. During the processes of panning and amalgamation when amalgam is burned in a small charcoal fire, ASGM releases Hg into the atmosphere [2,3]. ASGM is a widely recognized major source of Hg contamination, and its activities cause serious Hg pollution. Mercury is extremely dangerous and contaminates air, water, soil, and living organisms. The health of miners and people living within or outside ASGM areas is affected by the inhalation of atmospheric Hg [3]. Anthropogenic Hg emissions to the atmosphere significantly interfere with the natural Hg cycle [4]; estimates of natural global
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