Abstract
The use of different concentrations of sodium hypochlorite solutions (placebo; 1% and 3.5% sodium hypochlorite solutions) and 2 water-storage containers (traditional plastic container and the improved CDC safe water-storage container) as interventions in 2 rural communities using different water sources (improved vs. unimproved) was evaluated over a period of 4 months. Standard methods were used to determine the presence of indicator organisms (total coliforms, faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, faecal enterococci, Clostridium perfringens, male-specific F-RNA and somatic coliphages) in the water samples. The results indicated that the 1% and the 3.5% sodium hypochlorite solutions effectively reduced the numbers of indicator microorganisms to undetectable counts in both types of water-storage containers. However, no statistical differences were seen between the 2 types of water-storage containers in the numbers of indicator microorganisms present in the stored water with the addition of a placebo sodium hypochlorite solution. Compliance of households with the use of the sodium hypochlorite intervention ranged between 60% and 100%. A household questionnaire survey indicated an urgent need for education concerning the risk of waterborne diseases, the proper use of safe household water-storage devices and water treatment processes and improvement of hygiene and sanitation practices in these rural households.
Highlights
An estimated 1.2 bn. people worldwide do not have access to safe drinking water (WHO, 2002a; WHO, 2002b)
No statistical differences were seen in the prevalence of indicator microorganisms between the traditional and the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) safe water-storage containers using the placebo sodium hypochlorite solution in both study populations
This is in agreement with an earlier study conducted by Quick et al(1996) who indicated that the CDC safe water-storage container without the sodium hypochlorite intervention is not very effective in reducing the risk associated with waterborne diseases
Summary
An estimated 1.2 bn. people worldwide do not have access to safe drinking water (WHO, 2002a; WHO, 2002b). The water-storage containers used in these rural households are often not cleaned and are exposed to faecal contamination due to children who put their hands into the water, unhygienic handling of the water-storage containers, the use of dirty utensils to withdraw water, dust, animals, birds and various types of insects (Mintz et al, 1995; Reiff et al, 1996; CDC, 2001; WHO, 2002a). Several studies carried out in developing communities to improve the microbiological quality of stored household drinking water, have reported on the effectiveness of treatments such as boiling, heating, sedimentation, filtration, exposure to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight and disinfection with sodium hypochlorite solutions (Gilman and Skillicorn, 1985; Mintz et al, 1995; Conroy et al, 1996; CDC, 2001; Sobsey, 2002; Clasen et al, 2006). The United States Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) have taken the results from all of these studies and designed a 20 l household water-storage container containing a valved spigot, a handle and a mediumsize opening to reduce the risk of external contamination of the water during water-storage (Mintz et al, 1995; Reiff et al, 1996; CDC, 2001; Sobsey, 2002)
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