Abstract
In this pilot study, a modified sampling protocol was evaluated for the detection of lead contamination and locating the source of lead release in a simulated premise plumbing system with one-, three- and seven-day stagnation for a total period of 475 days. Copper pipes, stainless steel taps and brass fittings were used to assemble the “lead-free” system. Sequential sampling using 100 mL was used to detect lead contamination while that using 50 mL was used to locate the lead source. Elevated lead levels, far exceeding the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline value of 10 µg·L−1, persisted for as long as five months in the system. “Lead-free” brass fittings were identified as the source of lead contamination. Physical disturbances, such as renovation works, could cause short-term spikes in lead release. Orthophosphate was able to suppress total lead levels below 10 µg·L−1, but caused “blue water” problems. When orthophosphate addition was ceased, total lead levels began to spike within one week, implying that a continuous supply of orthophosphate was required to control total lead levels. Occasional total lead spikes were observed in one-day stagnation samples throughout the course of the experiments.
Highlights
Lead is a toxic metal with a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) of zero mg/L; no amount of lead consumed is safe for human health
Lead pipes were banned in the US under the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1986 [4], followed by the implementation of the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) in 1991, which set an action level for lead at 0.015 mg/L [5]
Brass fittings were identified to be the lead source in the system
Summary
Lead is a toxic metal with a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) of zero mg/L; no amount of lead consumed is safe for human health. The use of lead pipes in the distribution system has been banned since the 1980s in many countries. Lead pipes were banned in the US under the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1986 [4], followed by the implementation of the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) in 1991, which set an action level for lead at 0.015 mg/L [5]. It is important to note that the action level is not a health-based standard, but a regulatory standard which triggers water utility actions when the 90th percentile exceeds the action level. The guideline value for lead in drinking water set by the World Health Organization (WHO) is 0.01 mg/L [6]
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