Abstract
Using a representative set of 10 of the worst invasive species in Europe, this study investigates the relative importance of climatic, habitat and socio-economic factors in driving the occurrence of invasive species. According to the regression models performed, these factors can be interpreted as multi-scale filters that determine the occurrence of invasive species, with human degradation potentially affecting the performance of the other two environmental filters. Amongst climate factors, minimum temperature of the coldest month was one of the most important drivers of the occurrence of Europe’s worst freshwater and terrestrial invaders like the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), Bermuda buttercup (Oxalis pes-caprae) and Sika deer (Cervus nippon). Water chemistry (alkalinity, pH, nitrate) determines the availability of habitat and resources for species at regional to local levels and was relevant to explain the occurrence of aquatic and semi-aquatic invaders such as the brook trout (Salvalinus fontinallis) and Canada goose (Branta canadensis). Likewise, nitrate and cholorophyll-a concentration were important determinants of marine invaders like the bay barnacle (Balanus improvisus) and green sea fingers (Codium fragile). Most relevant socio-economic predictors included the density of roads, country gross domestic product (GDP), distance to ports and the degree of human influence on ecosystems. These variables were particularly relevant to explain the occurrence of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and coypu (Myocastor coypu), species usually associated to disturbed environments. The Japanese kelp (Undaria pinnatifida) was generally distributed much closer to ports than the other two marine organisms, although insufficient information on human impacts prevented a correct assessment of the three marine species. In conclusion, this study shows how socio-economic development is associated with the presence of the top 10 worst European invasive species at a continental scale, and relates this fact to the provision and transport of propagules and the degradation of natural habitats that favour the establishment of invasive species.
Highlights
The pan-European project DAISIE reported that a total of 12 000 non-native species are currently present in Europe, which is probably an underestimation of the real figure (DAISIE 2009)
Our analyses suggest that the occurrence of Europe’s worst invaders is primarily limited by basic climate and habitat constraints, while human activities related to transport and the degree of human impact (GDP, Human Influence Index (HII))
Invasive species have usually a broad native range, phenotypic plasticity, wide abiotic tolerance, fast growth, early maturity, high fecundity, effective dispersal mechanisms and are generalists in their use of habitat and resources, which altogether increase the success of invasive species passing through environmental filters (e.g. THEOHARIDES & DUKES 2007; DAVIDSON et al 2011)
Summary
The pan-European project DAISIE (www.europe-aliens.org) reported that a total of 12 000 non-native species are currently present in Europe, which is probably an underestimation of the real figure (DAISIE 2009). Some of the most abundant groups include plants, fish and crustaceans that come predominantly from Asia and the Americas Their mechanisms of introduction are variable depending on the species but they are all directly or indirectly related to global trade, transport and human presence. This study makes use of this representative list of 10 species to investigate the relative importance of climatic, habitat and socio-economic factors in driving the large scale occurrence of invasive species in Europe. Climate may be insufficient to accurately describe the potential distribution of invasive species Habitat characteristics such as geomorphology, water chemistry and vegetation condition are important regional scale determinants of invasive species occurrence (LOO et al 2009). Drivers controlling the global-scale spread of invasive species fundamentally differ from native species in that their transport and introduction depend on socio-economic activities (PYŠEK et al 2010; ESSL et al 2011). By using geographical information at a high resolution (1 km2), this study provides accurate insights into the geographic correlation between invasive species occurrence and several climate, habitat and socio-economic indicators at a continental scale
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