Eugenics

Abstract

Charles Darwin (b. 1809–d. 1882) published On the Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871). These texts instigated public awareness and discussion of evolutionary theory. They inspired the development of social Darwinism, which attempts to apply evolutionary ideas to the social world as route for social progress. Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton (b. 1822–d. 1911), proposed that the “human stock” could be improved by controlled breeding. Galton founded the science of human eugenics. He defined human eugenics as “the study of the agencies under social control that seek to improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations either physically or mentally” (Memories of My Life. 2d ed. London: Methuen, 1908, p. 321). Part of Galton’s argument, described in Hereditary Genius (Galton 1998, cited under History) was that social hierarchies and class were indicative of “fitness” and therefore reflected inborn differences in ability and worth. He assumed that men of status in society held this position due to their natural superiority and therefore that the structure of society reflected inborn natural differences. Consequently social welfare was perceived as inherently flawed, as allowing less “fit” members of society to procreate was detrimental to developing a healthy society and against the laws of nature. A central issue for eugenicists was that of preventing or remediating racial deterioration. Breeding better people, through eugenic marriages and removing the weaker elements of society improves society and does “providentially, quickly and kindly” what nature did “blindly, slowly and ruthlessly” (Galton cited in Kevles 1985, p. 12; cited under General Overviews). Galton established an anthropometric laboratory to collect measurements of human abilities and characteristics. He developed the use of the statistical concept of normal distribution from which he could predict, for example, how many people one could expect to find at different levels of mental ability. The categorization and measurement of abilities became a central part of eugenic thought. Eugenics has had a far-reaching effect on how differences between children have been constructed and acted on. Eugenics assumed a hierarchy of races, classified people according to ethnic groups, and fostered discrimination based on that assumption. Similar discrimination was practiced according to measures of intellectual ability. The influence of eugenic thinking was global and hence the bibliography necessarily draws on research encompassing each continent and many individual countries. As a research topic, eugenics is explored in many overlapping areas of research but particularly in the areas of disability, education, child care, and the application of new technologies. The issue of the eugenic conceptualization of race pervades all of these areas.