Ethnobiology of unconcerned floras in organic and inorganic agricultural fields - Bahour, Puducherry- India

Coastal dune floras play a key role in dune stabilization and restoration, a part from this, their unique important medicinal values remains unexplored to most of the people, thus results in destruction and removal of dune floras. This communication addresses the composition and distribution of CSD medicinal floras surveyed during March-December 2010 by direct interviews with ethnic groups dwelling in the proximity of CSDs, native traditional healers, Ayurvedic practitioners and botanists dealing with medicinal wild plants in selective coastal villages of Puducherry. Results enumerated with a total of 52 species belonging to 34 families. Fabaceae was found to be the most dominant family and majority of the medicinal plants were herbs. These CSD floras were under constant anthropogenic pressure due to rapid elimination of sand dunes and its associated vegetation; as a result, its associated indigenous knowledge with them is also gradually disappearing. Such biodiversity rich and useful ecosystems need immediate restoration and conservation actions.

Both Mediterranean and Sub-Mediterranean regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina are known for very prominent traditional usage of wild medicinal and aromatic plants for the treatment of various diseases. Ethno botanical interview method was used to collect information from the sample population comprised of 55 adults, of different religious background (Catholics, Muslims, and Orthodox), with an average age of 63. This resulted in the collection of 96 wild plants from 46 different plant families. These plants are used in preparation of up to 200 different ethno pharmaceuticals and used for 430 different treatments, mainly of chronic diseases: respiratory system (63 species), stomach and intestinal system (55 species), liver and gall bladder (60 species), urinary system (33 species), genital system (42 species), nervous system (30 species), cardiovascular system (27 species), skin conditions (56 species). 60 species are being used for the treatment of some other health disorders. In ecological sense, 40% of these species are constituents of meadow and rock debris communities, 34% of termophilous forest and shrub communities, while 20% of species are constituents of abandoned places. Key words: Biodiversity, botanical medicine, ethno therapy, ethno biology, ethno pharmacology, herbal anthropology, pharmaceutical ethno botany, preparations of traditional medicines.

Introduction: Fennel has been cultivated as a medicinal and spice plant for a long time in different areas of Iran. However, its characterizes such as slow-growing, weak establishment, owning low LAI index and long seasonal plant, make it a poor competitor against weed, therefore, protection from weed is essential for successful cropping. The combination of management practices, such as mulching with herbicide could improve weed control efficacy of reduced rates. Limited information is available on control of weeds in fennel as important medicinal plant. Using a combination of physical control and herbicides at reduced rate may increase the efficacy of both treatments while reducing the cost of the weed control program and environmental impact of over reliance on herbicide applications. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of reduced rates of the pendimethalin alone and in combination with wheat straw mulch and one hand-weeding on the growth of weed and grain yield of cultivated fennel. Materials and Methods: this experiment was carried out at the Research Farm of Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan in the spring 2012 to introduce an integrated weed control method in fennel. In this experiment the efficacy of different rates of pendimethalin alone and with combination with one hand weeding and straw mulch for selective control of grass and broadleaf weed species were evaluated. Field experiment was laid out as factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Factors were application dose (0, 660, 990 and 1320 g a.i. ha-1) and supplemental weed control (none, one hand-weeding, mulching). A plot with whole season hand weeding was also included as control. The recommended doses of pendimethalin were 1320 g ai ha-1. Fennel was planted at 10 seeds m-2, at 0.5 m row spacing, on May 6, 2012. Pendimethalin was applied pre-emergence soon after planting. In the mulch treatments, wheat straw were spread evenly after fennel planting at the rate of 2 kg m-2. In the weed control treatments which one hand weeding used as supplemental physical control, a hand-weeding was performed at 50 days after planting. At fennel maturity, weeds were harvested from a 0.5 m2 area and dried in an oven for 48 h at 75 oC and biomass was recorded. For assessing the effect of the treatments on fennel seed yield a 2 m2 centre area of the plots was harvested manually. Data were subjected to an analysis of variance using PROC GLM in SAS Software. The means were compared using a Fisher's Protected Least Significance Difference test (P< 0.05). Results and Discussion: Biomass of broad leaf weeds was significantly affected by herbicide doses and supplemental control. However, application dose and supplemental control interaction were not significant on broad leaf weeds biomass. Maximum broadleaf weed biomass control (85.9%) was recorded by recommended dose of pendimethalin. For a given dose of herbicide, weed control efficiency was higher when the physical methods were used as supplemental control and generally one hand-weeding was effective than mulching. All weed management treatments reduced biomass of grass weeds compared to weedy control. No differences were observed between the grass weed biomass in plots which received 75% and 100% of the labeled recommended rate of pendimethalin. Significant differences (p < 0.05) among herbicide rates and 50% of the labeled recommended rate (660 g a.i. ha-1) was observed for grass weed biomass. Biomass of grass weeds was also significantly affected by physical control. Maximum grass weed control (86%) was observed with one hand-weeding than the mulch. Same to broadleaf, the interaction effect of application dose × supplemental control treatments was not significant for grass weeds biomass. Total weeds biomass was significantly affected by herbicide. The interaction effect of application dose × supplemental control treatments were significant for total weeds biomass. Maximum weed biomass (1837.5 g.m-2) was recorded in weedy control. When herbicide combined with one hand-weeding, the rate of 660 g a.i. ha-1 of pendimethalin was sufficient to provide 81% total weed control, which was statistically similar to the best control achieved for all dose and physical combination treatments. Fennel seed yield and yield component was significantly affected by application dose and physical control. The greatest seed yield loss (97.6%) was recorded in no weed control plots. and the lowest seed yield loss (13%) was seen in the recommended dose of pendimethalin + one hand-weeding plot. When one hand-weeding was used as a supplemental control, increased herbicide application rates from 990 to 1320 g a.i. ha-1 did not significantly influence the level of fennel seed yield. Conclusions Overall, results of this study showed that pendimethalin in labeled recommended rate and applied alone was not sufficient to provide season long weed control. The recommended dose in combination with one hand weeding could not prevent of economic yield loss. As a result, it is recommended to test efficient herbicide or other methods of weed management of this plant. To improve the level of weed control with mulch, application of herbicides at the same time as the mulch or supplemental hand-weeding could be suggested as a part of integrated weed management in fennel.

Sale of wild plants can provide income security for rural communities during times when their livelihoods are disrupted by land use change, globalization of economies and climate change. This study was carried out to describe the trade in wild medicinal plants in Narok, a rural region of Kenya. Data were gathered between July 2013 and June 2014. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to traders in wild medicinal plants. These were supplemented by key informant interviews and field observation. Results showed that trade in wild medicinal plants in Narok was a recent phenomenon, it started in the early 1980’s and the number of traders had gradually increased over the last 30 years. The average age of traders was 48 years and most (65%) of them had no formal schooling. This trade was dominated by men at 85% and it was unregulated in open air markets. Most traders (66%) were engaged in it on full time basis. Fifty five percent (55%) of all traders interviewed were mobile and moved from one market to another while the rest operated from a fixed location. At least 106 wild plant species were on sale in the markets, with the family Leguminosae having the highest number of species 16% traded followed by Compositae at 5.7%. Most traders had 11-30 plant species up for sale. The clientele for wild medicinal plant products were households, hoteliers and livestock herders. Medicinal plant products on sale were sourced from the wild. The increasing popularity and marketing of these wild medicinal plants was seen to be a threat to the remaining wild stocks. This project recommends that conservation measures that include both in situ and ex situ measures be undertaken to meet this demand. In addition the traders should be organized into groups to help self-regulate the trade.

The contamination of 137Cs in wild-growing medicinal plants was studied with regards to the species, type of forest vegetation conditions and soil specific activity of 137Cs in Zhytomyr polissya forest phytocenoses (Ukraine). The research was carried out in two plots planted in the most region typical edatopes - fresh and wet subor (Querceto-Pinetum). Species composition of phytocenoses was analyzed and the plants that can be harvested for pharmaceutical industry were identified on these test plots,. The herbal substance samples were tested to determine the specific activity of 137Cs. The studies have shown significant variability in the content of radionuclides due to differences in the level of radioactive contamination in the soil and accumulative capacity of plant species. For European blueberry, the peculiarities of 137Cs accumulation in vegetative and generative organs were studied. Comparison of the content of 137Cs in pants of different edatopes showed more higher intensity of radionuclide accumulation in wet suborbs compared to fresh suborbs. The average values of concentration factors were calculated and their rankings were built according to the intensity of 137Cs accumulation for the plants in each edatope. All studied medicinal plants were divided into four groups according to the contration factor: with weak accumulation, moderate accumulation, strong accumulation, and very strong accumulation. Based on the permissible content of 137Cs in wild-growing medicinal plants (600 Bq/kg), the maximum permissible level of soil contamination with radionuclides was determined for each medicinal plant species.

Wild medicinal plants gathering for the treatment of various human ailments is an ancient tradition that has endured in mountainous areas of Pakistan. In order to understand the pattern and uses of plants, a study on the Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants of Shawar valley, District Swat was conducted during summer 2008. Information’s about these plant resources were collected through semi-structured interviews, field observation and group discussion. In order to documents the preset use of medicinal plants growing in and around the study area an elderly person up to age group 60 was mostly interviewed. The study revealed that 87 plants species of 58 families of having ethnomedicinal importance. There were 50 Dicotyledonous families, 3 Monocotyledons families (Aliaceae, Iridacea and Poaceae), 2 Gymnosperms families (Pinaceae and Taxaceae) 2 Pteridophytes families (Polypodiaceae and Pteridaceae) and family Halvelaceae of fungi. These species were used for the curing of various human ailments in indigenous system of medicines. Some plants are used singly while many others are used in combination with other plants or edible items. Similarly, few plants species are considered for the treatment of only one specific disease while several other have multiple such medicinal uses. These are mostly used for the curing of gastro-intestinal problems, emmenagogue and antispasmodic and also for general body tonic. The detail local uses, local method of recipe preparation and application along with their local name and disease treated were reported for each species. The study also observed that the availability of pharmaceutically and therapeutically important MAP species is declining and the number of rare and threatened species among the MAPs is increasing in the area. Further study is, therefore, required to quantify the availability of species and to suggest suitable method for their production and conservation. Recommendations are, therefore, given in the spheres of training in identification, sustainable collection, value addition, trade monitoring and cooperative system of marketing of medicinal plants.

The moist temperate Himalayas, as one of the major ecological zone of Pakistan, deserve specific attention to the conservation of environment and the sustainable development of natural resources. During the last hundred years, the area has been subjected to major structural changes leading to a decrease of about fifty per cent of the potential forest area. The decrease in forest cover, combined with major changes in community structure has been responsible for the decline of indigenous medicinal plants resources and their traditional knowledge also. Ayubia National Park has been identified as one of the priority area to be focused for medicinal plant conservation. The study was aimed to analyze traditional knowledge including local names, general distribution, flowering period, part used, medicinal and other uses, market values and taxonomic diversity of the medicinal plant of the area The field surveys were conducted by adopting predefined questionnaires through guided and transect walks. The market oriented indigenous species have been subjected through IUCN criterion for evaluation of their conservation status. Traditional knowledge about 117 indigenous medicinal plants (including 8 cultivated ones) have been collected from 140 informants. Women followed by children have been identified as the principle gatherers of medicinal plants. About 44 species were found to be market oriented. According to this criterion, eleven species including two trees (Juglans regia, Taxus wallichiana), one shrub (Berberis lycium) and eight herbaceous species (Asparagus adscendens, Atropa acuminata, Colchicum luteum, Dioscorea deltoidea, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum australe, Saussurea costus and Valeriana jatamansi) have been found as endangered. It has been concluded that Traditional knowledge in Moist Temperate Himalayas of Pakistan is under threat of being lost. Availability of cultivated land is quite less, the establishment of botanical gardens, home gardens or kitchen gardens may be the best ex situ conservation strategy, which can be adopted for sustainable utilization of medicinal plants. While clearly defined land tenure system and community participation in park management will be the best in situ conservation measure for adoptation.

نماتدهای ریشه گرهی (Meloidogyne spp) از جمله عوامل بیماریزای بسیار مهمی هستند که خسارت زیادی به محصولات کشاورزی وارد می‌سازند. روش‌های متعددی (تناوب زراعی، ارقام مقاوم و ترکیبات شیمیایی) برای کنترل آنها به کار گرفته شده است. هزینه بالا و مشکلات زیست‌محیطی (ترکیبات شیمیایی)، توجه محققان را به استفاده از روش های غیر‌شیمیایی همچون استفاده از گیاهان و فرآورده های گیاهی برای مدیریت این نماتدها معطوف کرده است. جهت بررسی تأثیر حضور تعدادی از گیاهان خانواده نعناع روی نماتد ریشه‌گرهی، از سه گیاه دارویی آویشن باغی (Thymus vulgaris)، مرزه (Saturea hortensis) و زوفا (Hyssopus officinalis) استفاده شد. این آزمایش در گلخانه ای بصورت فاکتوریل و در قالب طرح کاملا تصادفی با چهار تکرار با کشت تنها و مخلوط گوجه‌فرنگی با گیاهان دارویی زوفا، آویشن و مرزه، در حضور و بدون حضور نماتد انجام شد. ارزیابی نتایج سه ماه بعد از تلقیح نماتد و بر اساس شاخص های رشدی گوجه فرنگی و پارامترهای بیماری زایی نماتد صورت گرفت. تجزیه و تحلیل آماری داده های حاصل ‌‌نشان دهنده اثر معنی‌دار حضور سه گیاه دارویی مذکور روی کاهش خسارت نماتد بود. مؤثرترین گیاه در کاهش خسارت و بیماری زایی نماتد مرزه بود و آویشن باغی، و زوفا در درجات بعدی قرار گرفتند. در مجموع بررسی‌های گلخانه‌ای گیاهان دارویی مورد آزمایش، اثرات کنترلی مطلوبی علیه نماتد ریشه گرهی از خود نشان دادند و می‌توان استفاده از آنها را در برنامه‌های مدیریت نماتد ریشه‌گرهی مورد توجه قرار داد.

ارزش غذایی و سودمندی های دارویی روغن کدوی تخمه کاغذی (Cucurbita pepo var. Styriaca) در گرو عملکرد دانه، نوع و میزان اسیدهای چرب موجود در آن است. در این آزمایش پاسخ گیاه به دور آبیاری، مالچ پلاستیک سیاه و منبع کودی به‌صورت اسپلیت- فاکتوریل بر پایه-ی بلوک های کامل تصادفی، با سه تکرار در تابستان 1392 در مزرعه دانشگاه همدان بررسی شد. کرت‌های اصلی، دور آبیاری (هفت و 12روزه) و کرت‌های فرعی فاکتوریل مالچ (کاربرد و عدم کاربرد) و رژیم کودی (25% کودهای شیمیایی (اوره و سوپر فسفات تریپل)+ کودهای زیستی (نیتروکسین و بیوفسفات)، 50% شیمیایی+ کودهای زیستی، 75% شیمیایی+ کودهای زیستی و مصرف 100% کودهای شیمیایی) بود. نتایج نشان داد که بیوماس کل، عملکرد میوه، دانه، شاخص برداشت، درصد و عملکرد روغن دانه تحت تأثیر برهمکنش فاکتورهای مورد بررسی و درصد و عملکرد پروتئین نیز تحت تأثیر اثرات اصلی فاکتورهای آزمایش قرار گرفتند. لینولئیک و اولئیک اسید به‌ترتیب 35/43 و 5/34 درصد از اسیدهای چرب روغن دانه را تشکیل دادند. تیمار آبیاری 12 روزه، کاربرد مالچ پلاستیک سیاه و مصرف 75 درصد کودهای شیمیایی+ کودهای زیستی، علاوه بر کاهش 25% کودهای شیمیایی و مصرف آب کمتر، با تولید 59554، 1559 و 731 کیلوگرم در هکتار میوه، دانه و روغن به‌عنوان تیمار برتر معرفی می شود. روغن تولید شده تحت این تیمار با داشتن 89/33% اولئیک اسید و 9/44% لینولئیک اسید از کیفیت بالایی برخوردار بود. بر این اساس با مدیریت صحیح نهاده های مصرفی، ضمن دستیابی به عملکرد مطلوب، زمینه های پایداری منابع تولید و توسعه پایدار فراهم خواهد شد.

Introduction: In order to response to greater demand for wild medicinal plants consumption, it has been recommended that wild medicinal plants can be brought into cultivation systems. Cichorium pumilum Jacq. is an annual species of Asteraceae family, that has a long history of herbal use and is especially of great value for its tonic effects upon the liver and digestive tract. The root and the leaves of chicory are digestive, hypoglycemic, diuretic, laxative and tonic. Using chemical fertilizers can be easily lost from soils through fixation, leaching or gas emission that can lead to reduced fertilizer efficiency. The applications of organic fertilizers such as compost and vermicompost can be considered as a good management practice to increase cropping system sustainability, reducing soil erosion and improving soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Soil microorganisms have a significant role in regulating the dynamics of organic matter breakdown and the availability of plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate and sulfur. Materials and Methods: For evaluating the effects of organic, mineral and biological fertilizers on seed yield and yield components of dwarf chicory (Cichorium pumilum Jacq.), a field experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Station, the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (36016/ N, 59036/ E, elevation 985 m) during growing season of 2011-2012. The experimental layout was factorial based on randomized complete block design with four replications. The experimental treatments were all combination of organic and chemical fertilizers (compost 4 t/ha, vermicompost 4 t/ha, urea fertilizer 130 kg/ha and control) and biological fertilizer (biosulfur biofertilizer + pure sulfur 100 kg/ ha and control). Before conducting the experiment, soil sample were taken from the depth of 0-30 cm, and physical and chemical characteristics of the soil and also used compost and vermicompost were determined. All fertilizer treatments were added to the soil and mixed well with the soil before sowing. In order to avoid leaching, all urea fertilizer was divided to two parts and these were used in two dates during the growth period. Cichorium pumilum Jacq seeds were hand sown in 2.5 ×4 m plots in five rows and with plant density 20 plants m−2. Before harvesting the grain, five plants were randomly selected in each plot from 2500 cm2 (50×50cm) and their characteristics and traits such as plant height, number of tiller per plant, number of branch per plant, number of inflorescence per plant, number of seed per inflorescence, number of seed per plant and seed weight were determined. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan multiple range test at 0.05 level were performed using SAS version 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Results and Discussion: The Results indicated that studied factors and their interactions had not significant effect on morphological traits (plant height, number of tiller per plant, number of branch per plant) and on yield components of seed such as: number of seed per inflorescence, 1000-seed weight, seed weight per plant, seed yield and harvest index (HI). The results showed that organic and chemical fertilizers had significant effect on number of inflorescence per plant, number of seed per plant, biological yield (p< 0.05).The highest number of inflorescence per plant, number of seed per plant and seed weight per plant were observed in chemical fertilizer + biosulfur biofertilizer treatment. The highest seed yield (1489 kg.ha-1) obtained from compost + biosulfur biofertilizer treatment. Chemical fertilizer + biosulfur biofertilizer treatment (7576 kg.ha-1) produced the highest biological yield. It seems that because of high solubility of chemical fertilizer, nutrients are immediately available to the plants therefore, plants can use nutrients of chemical fertilizer faster than other fertilizers. Biofertilizer and organic fertilizer can improve soil properties and also through nutrient supply, improves plant growth. Conclusion: In this study, it seems that the morphological traits (plant height, number of tiller and number of branches per plant) and yield components such as the number of seeds per inflorescence and seed weight were influenced by genetic characteristics and fertilizer treatments had little effect on mentioned traits and the plant was able with nutrient available in soil, overcome its needs. Overall in this study, results showed that the use of compost combination with biosulfur biofertilizer had positive effect on studied traits of dwarf chicory and use of them can be an effective step towards sustainable production and replacement use of chemical fertilizers.

به‌منظور بررسی اثر کودهای آلی و تراکم بوته بر برخی ویژگی‌های گیاه دارویی بالنگو (Lallemantia royleana Benth.) آزمایشی در مزرعه تحقیقاتی دانشکده کشاورزی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد در سال زراعی 90-1389 انجام گرفت. این آزمایش به صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح بلوک‌های کامل تصادفی با 15 تیمار و سه تکرار انجام شد. تیمارهای آزمایش عبارت بودند از پنج سطح کود آلی (گاوی، گوسفندی، مرغی، کمپوست زباله شهری و بدون کود) و سه سطح تراکم (20، 30 و 40 بوته در متر مربع). صفات اندازه‌گیری‌شده در این آزمایش میزان موسیلاژ، فاکتور تورم، میزان تورم برای هر گرم موسیلاژ، عملکرد دانه و عملکرد موسیلاژ بود. نتایج نشان داد که اثر کود بر شاخص‌های کیفی به‌جز عملکرد موسیلاژ و دانه معنی‌دار نبود. اثر تراکم بر عملکرد موسیلاژ و تورم معنی‌دار بود. حداکثر عملکرد کیفی با استفاده از کودهای آلی به ویژه کود مرغی و در تراکم 40 بوته در متر مربع حاصل شد. بدین ترتیب می‌توان به اثر کودهای آلی به عنوان یک منبع تغذیه مناسب برای گیاهان دارویی اشاره نمود.

The newly created state of Jharkhand is very rich in the plant wealth and other natural resources. The area has maxium concentration of tribal population in North India. The forests have several medicinal and aromatic plants that are being used as a source of medicines in various systems viz., Ayurveda, Siddha Unani and Homoeopathy. Due to continous habitat destruction fragmentation of forests, urbanization coupled with population explosion and agricultural growth, there is unprecedented pressure on plants wealth culminating into loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate. The authors have regularly been surveying the state for the last fifteen years. Based on the field survey literature and screening ca 24 medicinal plants whose populations have been continously depleting are identified and reported in the present communication.

بیماری پوسیدگی ریزوپوسی و نقطه سیاه از مهم ترین بیماری های انباری در گوجه فرنگی می باشند. به منظور بررسی توانایی چند گیاه دارویی بر ماندگاری و کنترل قارچ های عامل پوسیدگی انباری Rhizopus nigricans) و Alternaria alternate) در گوجه فرنگی های تولید شده در سامانه های کشاورزی رایج و زیستی، آزمایشی به صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح کاملاً تصادفی با 14 تیمار و سه تکرار در دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد در سال 1389 اجرا شد. دو سامانه تولید شامل گوجه فرنگی رایج و زیستی (ارگانیک) و شش گونه گیاهی (آویشن (Thymus vulgaris L.)، پونه (Mentha pulegium L.)، نعناع فلفلی (Mentha piperita L.)، اکالیپتوس (Eucalyptus globules L.)، کرچک (Ricinus communis L.) و گوجه فرنگی (Lycopersicom esculentum Mill.)) به همراه تیمار شاهد به ترتیب عامل اول و دوم در این آزمایش بودند. بر اساس نتایج آزمون غیر پارامتری کروسکال– والیس، تفاوت معنی داری بین سامانه های تولید گوجه فرنگی های ارگانیک با نوع غیرارگانیک آن از نظر سرعت پوسیدگی انباری ناشی از رشد قارچ های بیماری زا مشاهده شد. به طوری که در گوجه فرنگی های ارگانیک، سرعت پوسیدگی (47/1 عدد میوه در هفته) تا حدود 20 درصد کمتر از نوع غیرارگانیک آن بود. نتایج حاصل از آنالیز غیرپارامتری گونه های گیاهی نیز حاکی از وجود تفاوت بین این گونه ها از نظر تأثیر بر سرعت پوسیدگی انباری در گوجه فرنگی بود؛ به طوری که به جز کرچک و گوجه فرنگی، سایر گیاهان دارویی منجر به کاهش معنی دار سرعت رشد و توسعه قارچ های بیماری زا در انبار شدند.

India has 15 Agro climatic zones and 17000-18000 species of flowering plants of which 6000-7000 are estimated to have medicinal usage in folk and documented systems of medicine, like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Homoeopathy. About 960 species of medicinal plants are estimated to be in trade of which 178 species have annual consumption levels in excess of 100 metric tons. Medicinal plants are not only a major resource base for the traditional medicine & herbal industry but also provide livelihood and health security to a large segment of Indian population. The domestic trade of the AYUSH industry is of the order of Rs. 80 to 90 billion (1US$ = Rs.50). The Indian medicinal plants and their products also account of exports in the range of Rs. 10 billion. There is global resurgence in traditional and alternative health care systems resulting in world herbal trade which stands at US$ 120 billion and is expected to reach US$ 7 trillion by 2050. Indian share in the world trade, at present, however, is quite low. The National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) set-up in November 2000 by the Government of India has the primary mandate of coordinating all matters relating to medicinal plants and support policies and programmes for growth of trade, export, conservation and cultivation. The Board is located in the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homeopathy (AYUSH) of the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.

Interest in traditional medicine and in particular herbal medicine has increased in both developed and developing countries over the past two decades. Some reported adverse events following the use of certain herbal medicines have been associated with a variety of possible explanations, including the inadvertent use of the wrong plant species, adulteration with undeclared other medicines. The safety and quality of raw medicinal plant materials and finished products depend on factors that may be classified as intrinsic or extrinsic. However, quality control for the cultivation and collection of medicinal plants as the raw materials for herbal medicines may be more demanding than that for food production; possibly for this reason, only China, the European Union, and Japan have recently developed guidelines on good agricultural practices for medicinal plants. Medicinal plants should be harvested during the optimal season or time period to ensure the production of medicinal plant materials and finished herbal products of the best possible quality. The time of harvest depends on the plant part. Detailed information concerning the appropriate timing of harvest is often available in national pharmacopoeias, published standards, official monographs and major reference books. Prior to initiating a collection expedition, the geographical distribution and population density of the target medicinal plant species should be determined. When the collection sites have been identified, local and/or national collection permits should be obtained. Essential information on the target species should be obtained. Results of this article showed new techniques in collection and harvesting and drying of herbal medicines.