Abstract
SummaryBackgroundCOVID-19 has disproportionately affected minority ethnic populations in the UK. Our aim was to quantify ethnic differences in SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 outcomes during the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in England.MethodsWe conducted an observational cohort study of adults (aged ≥18 years) registered with primary care practices in England for whom electronic health records were available through the OpenSAFELY platform, and who had at least 1 year of continuous registration at the start of each study period (Feb 1 to Aug 3, 2020 [wave 1], and Sept 1 to Dec 31, 2020 [wave 2]). Individual-level primary care data were linked to data from other sources on the outcomes of interest: SARS-CoV-2 testing and positive test results and COVID-19-related hospital admissions, intensive care unit (ICU) admissions, and death. The exposure was self-reported ethnicity as captured on the primary care record, grouped into five high-level census categories (White, South Asian, Black, other, and mixed) and 16 subcategories across these five categories, as well as an unknown ethnicity category. We used multivariable Cox regression to examine ethnic differences in the outcomes of interest. Models were adjusted for age, sex, deprivation, clinical factors and comorbidities, and household size, with stratification by geographical region.FindingsOf 17 288 532 adults included in the study (excluding care home residents), 10 877 978 (62·9%) were White, 1 025 319 (5·9%) were South Asian, 340 912 (2·0%) were Black, 170 484 (1·0%) were of mixed ethnicity, 320 788 (1·9%) were of other ethnicity, and 4 553 051 (26·3%) were of unknown ethnicity. In wave 1, the likelihood of being tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection was slightly higher in the South Asian group (adjusted hazard ratio 1·08 [95% CI 1·07–1·09]), Black group (1·08 [1·06–1·09]), and mixed ethnicity group (1·04 [1·02–1·05]) and was decreased in the other ethnicity group (0·77 [0·76–0·78]) relative to the White group. The risk of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection was higher in the South Asian group (1·99 [1·94–2·04]), Black group (1·69 [1·62–1·77]), mixed ethnicity group (1·49 [1·39–1·59]), and other ethnicity group (1·20 [1·14–1·28]). Compared with the White group, the four remaining high-level ethnic groups had an increased risk of COVID-19-related hospitalisation (South Asian group 1·48 [1·41–1·55], Black group 1·78 [1·67–1·90], mixed ethnicity group 1·63 [1·45–1·83], other ethnicity group 1·54 [1·41–1·69]), COVID-19-related ICU admission (2·18 [1·92–2·48], 3·12 [2·65–3·67], 2·96 [2·26–3·87], 3·18 [2·58–3·93]), and death (1·26 [1·15–1·37], 1·51 [1·31–1·71], 1·41 [1·11–1·81], 1·22 [1·00–1·48]). In wave 2, the risks of hospitalisation, ICU admission, and death relative to the White group were increased in the South Asian group but attenuated for the Black group compared with these risks in wave 1. Disaggregation into 16 ethnicity groups showed important heterogeneity within the five broader categories.InterpretationSome minority ethnic populations in England have excess risks of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 and of adverse COVID-19 outcomes compared with the White population, even after accounting for differences in sociodemographic, clinical, and household characteristics. Causes are likely to be multifactorial, and delineating the exact mechanisms is crucial. Tackling ethnic inequalities will require action across many fronts, including reducing structural inequalities, addressing barriers to equitable care, and improving uptake of testing and vaccination.FundingMedical Research Council.
Highlights
The risks of SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease have been reported to be disproportionately increased in minority ethnic groups compared with White groups[1,2,3,4] in the UK and in other countries, including the USA5 and Brazil.[6]
We showed that multiple factors contribute to ethnic inequalities in COVID-19 and the importance of these factors varies by ethnic group
The ethnic breakdown of individuals who received a test was similar to that of the general population, test recipients were slightly older with more comorbid chronic conditions than the general population
Summary
The risks of SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease have been reported to be disproportionately increased in minority ethnic groups compared with White groups[1,2,3,4] in the UK and in other countries, including the USA5 and Brazil.[6]. In the UK, the collection of ethnicity data is con sidered essential for identifying and reducing ethnic inequalities.[11,12] there is no single universally accepted definition of ethnicity, it serves as an important social construct and surrogate marker for shared exposures or risks for people with similar social, biological, and cultural characteristics.[13,14,15]. Many studies on COVID-19 have reported findings according to broad ethnic categories—such as White, South Asian, and Black—rather than considering disaggregated groupings. Most evidence has been derived from populations with severe disease requiring hospitalisation, making it difficult to extrapolate findings to the general population.[16,17,18,19,20,21] previous studies have accounted for health status, socioeconomic deprivation, or household composition, none yet have considered these factors in conjunction.[22,23]
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