Abstract
In the present study, we offer detailed insights into the mechanisms of action of clove and rosemary essential oils (EOs) on Aspergillus flavus and provide evidence that the induction of apoptosis-like cell death and the downregulation of metabolic genes trigger their antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic effects. The mode of action of both EOs at the cellular level was investigated through the detection of early (nuclear condensation) and late apoptosis (damage of plasma membrane) in hyphae exposed to EOs and a growth rate assay. Furthermore, we investigated changes at the molecular level by relative gene expression analysis and determined the expression of genes related to secondary metabolism (laeA) and mechanisms of virulence (lipA and metP) in A. flavus. Additionally, the inhibition of aflatoxin B1 production by both EOs was detected by high-performance liquid chromatography. The results indicated that the exposure of A. flavus to clove and rosemary EOs induced significant apoptosis-like cell death and the downregulation of the laeA, lipA and metP genes, thereby providing novel insights into the cellular and molecular antifungal mechanisms of EOs against mycotoxigenic species.
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