Abstract
Epigenetic modifications are among the most important mechanisms by which environmental factors can influence early cellular differentiation and create new phenotypic traits during pregnancy and within the neonatal period without altering the deoxyribonucleic acid sequence. A number of antenatal and postnatal factors, such as maternal and neonatal nutrition, pollutant exposure, and the composition of microbiota, contribute to the establishment of epigenetic changes that can not only modulate the individual adaptation to the environment but also have an influence on lifelong health and disease by modifying inflammatory molecular pathways and the immune response. Postnatal intestinal colonization, in turn determined by maternal flora, mode of delivery, early skin-to-skin contact and neonatal diet, leads to specific epigenetic signatures that can affect the barrier properties of gut mucosa and their protective role against later insults, thus potentially predisposing to the development of late-onset inflammatory diseases. The aim of this review is to outline the epigenetic mechanisms of programming and development acting within early-life stages and to examine in detail the role of maternal and neonatal nutrition, microbiota composition, and other environmental factors in determining epigenetic changes and their short- and long-term effects.
Highlights
Research on this issue has eventually led to the discovery of a “second genome,” which comprises human microbiome and, via its metabolites, actively interacts with the genome derived by sperm and egg, resulting in far-reaching epigenetic modifications [2, 3]
Via epigenetic changes, early nutrition can play a key role in developmental programming, thereby possibly influencing the individual susceptibility to the later development of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, diabetes, and other non-communicable chronic conditions
This review aims to provide a complete overview on the complex interactions between early nutrition, microbiome, and epigenome during the early phases of human development, examining current evidence in detail and shedding light on the complex epigenetic processes that have been identified so far
Summary
Research on this issue has eventually led to the discovery of a “second genome,” which comprises human microbiome and, via its metabolites, actively interacts with the genome derived by sperm and egg, resulting in far-reaching epigenetic modifications [2, 3]. The period of life during which epigenetic DNA imprinting activity is the most active lasts from conception to the second anniversary, being referred to as “the 1,000 days period” [4]. During this time interval, via epigenetic changes, early nutrition can play a key role in developmental programming, thereby possibly influencing the individual susceptibility to the later development of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, diabetes, and other non-communicable chronic conditions
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