Abstract
Phenotypic heterogeneity is common in bacteria. Cases of epigenetic formation of bacterial lineages have been known for decades, and more examples have been unveiled by the advent of single-cell analysis. Epigenetic mechanisms establish cell fate in bacterial genera which undergo developmental programs. Lineage formation also occurs during biofilm formation and the colonization of animals by bacterial pathogens, and may be a frequent phenomenon when bacterial populations adapt to harsh environments. Lineage formation can be observed even in the laboratory, which suggests that phenotypic heterogeneity in clonal populations may be intrinsic to the bacterial lifestyle. The underlying mechanisms are diverse, ranging from relatively simple, inheritable feedback loops to complex self-perpetuating DNA methylation patterns.
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