Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Kenya affecting cloven-hoofed ruminants. The epidemiology of the disease in small ruminants (SR) in Kenya is not documented. We carried out a cross-sectional study, the first in Kenya, to estimate the sero-prevalence of FMD in SR and the associated risk factors nationally. Selection of animals to be sampled used a multistage cluster sampling approach. Serum samples totaling 7564 were screened for FMD antibodies of non-structural-proteins using ID Screen® NSP Competition ELISA kit. To identify the risk factors, generalized linear mixed effects (GLMM) logistic regression analysis with county and villages as random effect variables was used. The country animal level sero-prevalence was 22.5% (95% CI: 22.3%-24.3%) while herd level sero-prevalence was 77.6% (95% CI: 73.9%-80.9%). The risk factor that was significantly positively associated with FMD sero-positivity in SR was multipurpose production type (OR = 1.307; p = 0.042). The risk factors that were significantly negatively associated with FMD sero-positivity were male sex (OR = 0.796; p = 0.007), young age (OR = 0.470; p = 0.010), and sedentary production zone (OR = 0.324; p<0.001). There were no statistically significant intra class correlations among the random effect variables but interactions between age and sex variables among the studied animals were statistically significant (p = 0.019). This study showed that there may be widespread undetected virus circulation in SR indicated by the near ubiquitous spatial distribution of significant FMD sero-positivity in the country. Strengthening of risk-based FMD surveillance in small ruminants is recommended. Adjustment of husbandry practices to control FMD in SR and in-contact species is suggested. Cross-transmission of FMD and more risk factors need to be researched.
Highlights
Livestock husbandry in developing countries like Kenya is critical for ensuring food security and for poverty alleviation [1]
The bulk of small ruminants in Kenya are held in the pastoral zone
Small ruminant Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) sero-positivity established in most counties countrywide shows that FMD may be present in the species in majority of herds but this needs to be authenticated through isolation of the FMD virus
Summary
Livestock husbandry in developing countries like Kenya is critical for ensuring food security and for poverty alleviation [1]. Sheep and goats (small ruminants) are sometimes preferred by farmers compared to large ruminants because of the small space they occupy and less fodder requirement. Goats have high adaptability to harsh climates which makes them suitable for husbandry in marginal areas [2, 3]. Small ruminant population in Kenya stands at 17.1 million sheep, 27.7 million goats about 50–57% of which are in the pastoral and agro-pastoral production areas [4, 5]. Sheep breeds include red maasai, black-head Persian and east African fat tailed sheep. The small east African is most dominant milk breeds such as the Galla and Toggenberg are to be found [6]
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