Abstract
While the effects of cleaning and disinfection practices on the reduction of environmental nosocomial bacteria are well-established in human and large animal veterinary hospitals, how animal movements within animal health care facilities influence environmental bacterial recovery is poorly understood. During three consecutive weeks, 155 electrostatic wipes were collected from the environment pre- and post-cleaning only or following disinfection from seven target locations within an animal shelter. All samples were cultured, and isolates were identified using a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization—time of flight mass spectrometry. Social network analysis of animal movements during the sampling period was performed to estimate the level of connectivity of the seven target locations. The relationship between bacterial levels and connectivity estimates of the target locations were investigated using a negative binomial regression model with a random effect of sampling areas. Overall, our results indicate a significant reduction in the total bacterial contamination with disinfection when compared to cleaning only [Coefficient (Coef.) = −1.72, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = −3.09, −0.34, P = 0.015]. Higher total bacterial contamination was significantly more likely in sampled areas with less animal movement connectivity (Coef. = −0.32, 95% CI = −0.49, −0.15, P ≤ 0.001). Pseudomonas aeruginosa and ampicillin resistant Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Enterobacter spp. and Klebsiella spp.) were present in the animal holdings and in the shelters' veterinary clinic environment at all sampling times. Our findings demonstrate that cleaning followed by disinfection practices are effective at reducing environmental bacterial levels. Areas with less animal connectivity are more likely to have a higher bacterial contamination. These areas could represent environmental reservoirs for bacterial infection and should be targeted with effective cleaning and disinfection protocols.
Highlights
Nosocomial infections are a growing concern in both human and veterinary medicine
Studies sampling small animal veterinary clinic environments have reported the bacterial recovery of Escherichia coli ranging from 76 to 89.5% (1, 10), methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from 1.4–16% (7, 9), methicillin resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP) from 2 to 13.8% (6, 11) and P. aeruginosa isolated from 30% (3/10) of the sampled environments (4)
Our study revealed the presence of MRSP, E. coli, Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp. and P. aeruginosa in the environment of the animal shelter and veterinary clinic with a significant proportion of Enterobacter and E. coli being multidrug resistant (MDR)
Summary
Isolated bacteria causing nosocomial infections in dogs and cats include: methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), methicillin resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP), Pseudomonas aeruginosa and multidrug resistant (MDR) Enterobacteriaceae (1–4). These potential pathogens present in the environment of veterinary clinics may be transmitted to animals via direct contact, veterinary personnel, other animals, and may cause infections such as surgical site, urinary tract, and bloodstream infections (5). Potential nosocomial bacterial pathogens have been isolated from surfaces that animals and humans frequently come in contact with in veterinary clinics, including: animal cages, water bowls, floors, water taps, door handles, treatment, and surgical benches (1, 6–9). In large animal veterinary hospitals, disinfectants have been shown to reduce environmental bacteria (12, 13); there is no literature regarding the efficacy of cleaning and disinfection protocols in small animal veterinary clinics and animal shelters
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