Environmental Change and Agricultural Sustainability in the Mekong Delta

Vietnam is one of many countries heavily impacted by climate change in recent decades. The Mekong Delta region has been a prominent example of the severity of climate change on agriculture and ecosystems. Many studies have been conducted to assess the impacts of climate change on different sectors in Vietnam, however, there are gaps in understanding climate effects from a gender perspective and the important role gender plays in climate response and adaptation. This paper aims to use a gender-specific perspective to examine effects of climate change on women’s and girls’ livelihoods, water and food security, labor and income, migration and education in Hoa An commune, Hau Giang province in Mekong Delta. Particularly, this paper addresses challenges that women and girls face amidst impacts of climate change. It also discusses opportunities to empower women and young girls in which education and training on raising awareness of climate change and taking appropriate adaptation measures, play a significant role. The paper is structured through the discussion of the theoretical background that employs a gender lens to frame climate change within the context of Mekong Delta in Vietnam. The methodology section describes the study site in Hoa An commune of Hau Giang province in the delta. Mixed qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted during the data collection process. The results report on (1) gender roles and gender power at family and at work (2) vulnerability perceived by women and girls, (3) impacts caused by climate change (4) livelihood support from central and local governments, adaptation, and role of education.

Land subsidence and rising sea levels could result in 40% of the Mekong Delta being covered by the South China Sea within the next few decades. The impact of groundwater withdrawal, in the SE Asia mega deltas of Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, Jakarta Delta, Chao Phraya Delta and Mekong Delta, is a major reason these deltas are sinking. There are lessons to be learned from both failures and successful remediation efforts in other mega deltas as Vietnam policy makers seek to address Mekong Delta subsidence. Without a significant Vietnam government remediation and mitigation efforts, land subsidence in the Mekong Delta will continue. Land subsidence has occurred in the Mekong Delta as a result of the retention of sediments behind the China and Laos dams on the main stem of the Mekong River, reduced flooding peaks, climate change, sea level rise, storm surges and flooding. In addition, subsidence has been exascerbated by compaction, groundwater extraction for shrimp ponds, rice paddies and the household and drinking water needs of approximately 20 million people living on the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Cambodia. The Mekong Delta shorelines are eroding and significant land areas, including wetlands, are becoming open water. The wetlands and land mass are also subsiding as a result of the reduction in sediment deposition. Large dams on the mainstem of the Mekong River in China and Laos have reduced peak flows and reduced sediment loads in lower Mekong River. Population and industrial growth have increased groundwater extraction and salt water intrusion as the delta subsides leading to consolidation and reduction in the current plumes flowing into the South China Sea. The primary objective of this paper is to assess the impact of groundwater withdrawals for rice paddies, shrimp ponds, aquaculture, industry and drinking water on Mekong Delta land subsidence. The secondary objective is to identify mitigation efforts used in other Southeast Asia deltas and make remediation recommendations for the sinking Mekong Delta. Promising mitigation approaches are injecting river water deep into the underlying alluvial sediments, return of the sediments trapped in China and Laos reservoirs to the Mekong River mainstem, increase in the Mekong River flooding peaks, and construction of sea and floodwalls, dykes, polders and levees. The addition of Mekong River sediments to build up existing floodplains, the reduction of coastal shoreline erosion, the planting of mangroves and protection of urban and agricultural areas from being covered by the South China Sea are strategies that could help remediate land subsidence in the Mekong Delta.

A large part of the world’s population lives in coastal areas, and even though river deltas only contribute to 5% of the global land mass, over 500 million people live in these areas, where major rivers reach the ocean. Deltas have numerous advantages for societal development, such as a flat topography, available fresh and salt water resources, good transportation via waterways and the nearby coast, fertile soils for agriculture, and usually also a rich biodiversity and recreational value through, for example, wetland ecosystems, coastal forests, and beaches. However, at the same time, river deltas of the world belong to the most endangered ecosystems with respect to societal, environmental and climate change – the latter especially manifested through sea level rise (SLR). In this chapter we present the most common environmental impacts of society’s economic development expressed via agricultural intensification, increasing urban sprawl, industrial activity, and infrastructure expansion in deltas, as well as the climate change and SLR related challenges that threaten delta development in many countries. We discuss means of mitigation and adaptation towards these negative impacts, which can be of educational, ecological, technological and political nature, and depict how delta populations with differing resilience address the challenges induced by environmental and climate change. We use the Mekong Delta in Vietnam as a case study by addressing the threats and possible adaptation options of this region.

The links between environmental change and migration is a theme which has caused much public debate. This debate is driven partially by the lack of empirical research on the linkages and relationship between environment and migration. This article offers a contribution to the limited literature which examines the ways in which migration is linked to environmental push factors. Initial research into the current dynamics of population displacement and migration linked to flooding in the upper reaches of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta was carried out in late 2007. Annual cyclical flooding in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam is a regular event and essential to the livelihoods of people living in the region. Over the last decade, however, there have been unusually large flooding events in the Mekong Delta region which have adversely impacted the lives and livelihoods of local communities. The research aimed to determine whether flooding could be considered a cause for migration or displacement. Results show that the impacts of regular flooding of the Mekong Delta can trigger independent household or individual migration decisions and are a cause for government‐initiated resettlement of households. This research contributes to an increased understanding of the role of environmental change/degradation in causing displacement and migration, since forced migration and migration studies have more commonly focused on economic, political and social reasons for population displacement.

Migration occurs as a response to economic development as well as to social, cultural, and environmental causes. This chapter explores migration patterns in the Mekong Delta (MD) region of Vietnam by using information in the Vietnam Household Living Standard Surveys for 2004 and 2006. The main purposes of the chapter are: (1) to gain insight into migration flows in the Mekong Delta region and (2) to identify the determinants of the migration flows regarding commune-related variables. From the description and the multivariate analysis, there are several interesting findings. First, the number of migrants in the Mekong Delta region has been increasing in recent years, and their destinations are the leading industrial and commercial cities in Vietnam, including Ho Chi Minh and Binh Duong. Second, “push” factors such as poverty and challenges in farm production are the key causes of migration flows. In addition, policy makers should take advantage of economic development programs as an adjustment tool in migration matters.

Anaerobic digestion, a series of processes in which micro-organisms break down biodegradable materials in the absence of oxygen, is normally used for wastewater treatment and energy production. Anaerobic digestion has been applied to hog – wastewater treatment and biogas production in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, where a high percentage of the population works in the agricultural sector. However, the supply of pig manure for operating the anaerobic digesters is not always available. Therefore, to stimulate the application and operation of anaerobic digesters that are very significant to water-pollution prevention in the Mekong Delta, there is a need to find supplemental inputs to pig manure to help maintain the operation of the digesters.The aim of our research was to find out the yield of biogas produced from batch anaerobic digestion by using water hyacinth (WH) – a plant commonly grown in the canal networks in the Mekong Delta – as a supplemental source to pig manure in biogas digesters. We conducted experiments using 50 L plastic bags of pig manure (PM) mixed with three different types of WH (C1, WH juice after 2 days of hydrolysis; C2, WH juice after 2 days of hydrolysis + chopped WH; and C3, WH juice after 2 days of hydrolysis + crushed WH). Based upon the organic dry matter (ODM) of input sources, we set up 13 experiments (with three replicates for each experiment) of 100% PM; 75% PM + 25% WH; 50% PM + 50% WH; 25% PM + 75% WH; and 100% WH. The produced biogas volume was recorded daily while other parameters of pH, buffer capacity, biogas components (CH4, CO2, O2, and H2S) were recorded once daily for 7 consecutive days during the 35 day period.According to our experimental conditions, the various preparations of WH showed differences in gas production. The gas production from experiments with C2 and C3 was not significantly different. Meanwhile, the gas production from experiments with C1 and C2 was significantly different.With respect to C2 treatments, on the one hand, the total gas production tended to be higher in the treatments with high percentages of WH (231 L, 315 L, 392 L, 358 L, and 439 L in the treatment of 100% PM; 75% PM + 25% WH; 50% PM + 50% WH; 25% PM + 75% WH; and 100% WH, respectively). On the other hand, total biogas yield per kg ODM of input materials reached the highest value in the treatment of 50% PM + 50% WH (122 L, 148 L, 176 L, 153 L, and 171 L in the treatment of 100% PM; 75% PM + 25% WH; 50%PM + 50% WH; 25% PM + 75% WH; and 100% WH, respectively).These results strongly confirm that the farmers in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam can use water hyacinth as a potential supplement to pig manure in anaerobic digestion in case they do not have enough pig manure for their anaerobic-digestion treatment systems.KeywordsBatch-type systemBiogas productionMekong DeltaVACB farming systemWater hyacinth

The Mekong River Delta within Vietnam is located at the southern tip of the country and is described as a vast triangular plain of about 40,519 square kilometers (km2), accounting for 12.24 % of the Vietnam’s total area of 331,051 km2. One side of the triangle forms the border with Cambodia to the north, and the other two sides are surrounded by the South China Sea to the southeast and the Gulf of Thailand to the west, with a coastline of about 600 km. The Mekong Delta of Vietnam (hereinafter referred to as Mekong Delta or simply the Delta) is drained by two main tributaries of the Mekong River, the Mekong and the Bassac, also known in Vietnam as the Tien River and the Hau River, respectively. For hundreds of years these two tributaries have been the lifeblood of the Mekong Delta providing freshwater resources and food security to its people. How to manage these water resources for developing a sustainable, intensive water-based economy and providing food security to the region and country will be the main challenge facing the Delta. The Mekong Delta comprises Can Tho City and 12 provinces: Long An, Tien Giang, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Vinh Long, Dong Thap, An Giang, Kien Giang, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, and Ca Mau. Can Tho was a former province until 2004 when it was split into two administrative units: Can Tho became a municipality at the province level, and Hau Giang was established as a new province. Can Tho is the smallest of the 13 administrative units in terms of land area, rural population, land use for forestry, and caught aquatics products. But it is the most populous urban center with the highest population density in the Mekong Delta Region. Of the twelve provinces, An Giang and Kien Giang stand out in many economic indicators. According to Vietnam’s 2009 Population and Housing Census, An Giang ranked first in population in general, and rural population in particular, farmed aquatic production and farmed fish production, rice production and rice yield. Kien Giang was the biggest province with the largest land use for agriculture and planted area paddy, and ranked first in caught aquatic production. Can Tho City and the 12 provinces will be examined individually in the next chapter. This chapter will describe the Mekong Delta as the sixth region of Vietnam, its climate, its natural conditions and resources, its population, its standards of living, its labor force, and its agricultural economy. The study will focus primarily on rice culture and aquaculture because they are the backbone of the economy and unlike other industries they depend totally on the water quality and availability of the Mekong River for survival and growth. In fact, the whole Delta lives on water: freshwater from the Hau and Tien Rivers, rainfall water from the sky, and saline water from the sea. Unless noted otherwise, statistical data for the Mekong Delta’s economy in this chapter were collected from the General Statistics Office (GSO 2000–2010) of Vietnam and the socioeconomic statistics of the Mekong Delta provinces and cities for a 10-year period (2000–2010) to provide a meaningful and significant analysis of the economic development of the Mekong Delta region. We selected 2000 because it was not only the first year of the new millennium but also the year when the United States signed a bilateral trade agreement with Vietnam in July.

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, one of the countries along the Mekong River, is an emerging driver of economic growth in Asia, but is facing major threats due to climate change. Especially, the Mekong Delta in Vietnam is one of the areas most vulnerable to direct inundation and salt water intrusion induced by climate change, which threatens the lives of the people who live there and harms the national and regional economies. This paper examines Korea’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) program in the Mekong Delta with a focus on climate change. We argue that Korea’s ODA has brought about and continues to provide mutual benefits for both countries, while additionally creating further opportunities to address the adverse effects of climate change in the Mekong Delta. The results show that while the Republic of Korea has been increasingly cooperative with Vietnam regarding economic and social development through ODA, there are limitations to dealing with the issues of climate change in the Mekong Delta. Therefore, we suggest more heavily focusing on climate change in the implementation of Korea’s ODA, thus promoting sustainability and climate resilience in the Mekong Delta.

Groundwater contamination by arsenic is a serious environmental problem in the world. Yet there have been few studies conducted in Southeast Asian countries. This article surveys arsenic contamination in groundwater and residents from Vietnam, and is based on our previous studies. Samples of groundwater (n = 118), human hair (n = 59), and urine (n = 100) were collected in the Red River and Mekong River Deltas during 2001–2004. Arsenic was detected in most of the groundwater samples, and its level ranged from <0.1 to 486 µg/l. Elevated concentrations of arsenic were observed in groundwater at some locations in Ha Nam (up to 486 µg/l) in the Red River Delta and Dong Thap (up to 411 µg/l) in the Mekong River Delta. Remarkably, about 33% of these groundwater samples exceeded the WHO drinking water guideline of 10 µg/l. These results suggest that arsenic contamination in groundwater may be widely present in both the Red River and Mekong River Deltas, Vietnam. A significant positive correlation was observed between arsenic concentrations in groundwater and human hair. Arsenic speciation of human urine revealed the presence of inorganic arsenic, and these concentrations positively correlated with arsenic levels in groundwater. Thus, it is likely that residents in our study areas are chronically exposed to arsenic through drinking groundwater, suggesting that there is a health risk from arsenic in Vietnam.

Assessing and modelling vulnerability to dengue in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam by geospatial and time-series approaches

Study and evaluation on sustainable industrial development in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam

Rising sea level poses critical ecological and economical consequences for the low-lying megadeltas of the world where dependent populations and agriculture are at risk. The Mekong Delta of Vietnam is one of many deltas that are especially vulnerable because much of the land surface is below mean sea level and because there is a lack of coastal barrier protection. Food security related to rice and shrimp farming in the Mekong Delta is currently under threat from saltwater intrusion, relative sea level rise, and storm surge potential. Understanding the degree of potential change in sea level under climate change is needed to undertake regional assessments of potential impacts and to formulate adaptation strategies. This report provides constructed time series of potential sea level rise scenarios for the Mekong Delta region by incorporating (1) aspects of observed intra- and inter-annual sea level variability from tide records and (2) projected estimates for different rates of regional subsidence and accelerated eustacy through the year 2100 corresponding with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate models and emission scenarios.

Tracing and making the state: Policy practices and domestic water supply in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam By NADINE REIS Zurich: Lit Verlag, 2012. Pp. 253. Maps, Notes, Bibliography. Floods and farmers: Politics, economics, and environmental impacts of dyke construction in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam By PHAM CONG HUU Zurich: Lit Verlag, 2012. Pp. 183. Maps, Notes, Bibliography. Beautiful floods: Environmental knowledge and agrarian change in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam By JUDITH EHLERT Zurich: Lit Verlag, 2012. Pp. 239. Maps, Notes, Bibliography. The challenge of knowledge sharing: Practices of the Vietnamese science community in Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta By TATJANA BAUER Zurich: Lit Verlag, 2011. Pp. 280. Maps, Notes, Bibliography. Over the past several years, the enormity of the environmental challenges facing the Mekong River Delta region of southern Vietnam has become increasingly clear. Climate change and dam construction on the upper reaches of the Mekong threaten to disrupt the flow of the river, making both droughts and floods ever more common. Meanwhile, the rapid intensification of rice agriculture in the Mekong Delta and the export-oriented cultivation of farmed fish and shrimp have increasingly strained the region's most vital resource--water. These four books--all volumes in a series published by Lit Verlag and edited by Solvay Gerke and Hans-Dieter Evers at the Center for Development Research at the University of Bonn in Germany--are especially timely because they each address, from different vantage points, crucial questions about environmental change, water management and development in the Mekong Delta. Nadine Reis's volume, Tracing and making the state, deals with the provision and supply of fresh water in rural areas of Can Tho province, looking both at how the performance of water supply buttresses the legitimacy of the Vietnamese state and at how the bureaucratic apparatus that has emerged around water supply actually functions. Pham Cong Huu's volume, Floods and farmers, examines the construction of flood dykes in the Mekong Delta, again drawing on research conducted in Can Tho to examine the participation (or nonparticipation) of local people in the design and construction of these new dykes, as well as their impact on local environments and livelihoods. In her volume, Beautiful floods, Judith Ehlert supplies an ethnographic account of the local politics of environmental knowledge in the Mekong Delta, focusing on the competing perspectives that exist around the floods that occur each rainy season; while local residents, she argues, tend to treat such flooding as a favourable event, government planners and experts have instead come to see the floods as a threat which must be controlled and contained. Finally, Tatjana Bauer's volume, The challenge of knowledge sharing, again explores the politics of knowledge, this time analysing the structural impediments facing the production and dissemination of technical and scientific knowledge on water management within Vietnamese universities and research institutes, based on research conducted in both Can Tho and Ho Chi Minh City. What makes these four volumes particularly noteworthy is that they all draw on substantial field research by young scholars at the University of Bonn, conducted under the auspices of the German-funded WISDOM (Water-Related Information System for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong) project. Thus, these volumes represent a unique product, both of a sustained institutional focus on a particular region and set of issues and of a scholarly exchange among European and Vietnamese researchers and research institutions. Since each of these volumes touches upon such similar topics, and since they each speak to and inform one another (sometimes quite directly, by the authors citing one another's work), it is appropriate here to deal with them collectively. …

Association between annual river flood pulse and paediatric hospital admissions in the Mekong Delta area

Drivers of change and adaptation pathways of agricultural systems facing increased salinity intrusion in coastal areas of the Mekong and Red River deltas in Vietnam