‘Enhancing’ factors in at-large plurality and majority systems: A reconsideration

Abstract

There are important variations in the plurality and majority at-large electoral systems used in cities in the United States. Some of these variations are thought to enhance the ability of a white majority to control electoral outcomes, thereby reducing the likelihood that blacks will be elected to city councils. The presence of these ‘enhancing factors’, however, is not found to account for variations in the degree of black under-representation on city councils of large cities employing the at-large format. Indeed, under specific conditions, one particular enhancing factor—staggered elections in a plurality context—may have consequences quite contrary to conventional expectations.