Abstract
Hyraceum (HM) is used in traditional medicine in Southern Africa. Three concentrations of HM (mg/ml in distilled water) (0.0156, 0.03125 and 0.0625) were assessed for cytotoxicity (CT), genotoxicity (GT) and modulation of cyclophosphamide (CP)- and ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS)-induced GT using the Allium cepa assay following 24 h treatment. CP (1.00 mg/ml) and EMS (0.0375 mg/ml) were not cytotoxic but genotoxic. HM (0.03125, 0.0625 mg/ml) and its mixtures with CP or EMS induced significant reduction (p <0.05) of the mitotic index (MI) and were adjudged cytotoxic. HM alone and its mixtures with CP or EMS induced statistically significant genotoxicity (p < 0.05). Mixture of HM (0.016 mg/ml) with CP was not significantly more genotoxic than CP alone (ME 0.57). Each mixture of HM (0.03125, 0.0625 mg/ml) with CP was insignificantly less genotoxic than CP alone with modulatory effect (ME) of -0.14 and -0.01, respectively, which suggested no interaction between HM and CP. Mixtures of HM with EMS induced positive and significant (>2-fold) MEs and each mixture was significantly (p < 0.05) more genotoxic than HM or EMS alone which indicated a synergistic interaction. Sticky chromosomes, chromosome laggards, chromosome fragments, anaphase and telophase bridges, binucleate interphase cells were observed. Key words: Cytotoxicity, cyclophosphamide, ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), Genotoxicity; anti-genotoxicity.  
Highlights
Since time immemorial, animals and animal products have been an important component of traditional medicine in practically every human culture in all parts of the world, used to treat and relieve a myriad of illnesses and diseases (Padmanabhan and Sujana, 2008)
Examination of the (P + M)/(A + T) ratio in column 8 of Table 1 shows that none of the treatments, that is, CP, ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), the three concentrations of hyraceum extract alone or mixtures of CP or EMS with each concentration of hyraceum induced a significant change in the (P + M)/(A + T) ratio, when compared with the water-treated negative control group (p > 0.05)
Examination of the mitotic index (MI) in column 9 of Table 1 shows that the concentration of CP (1.00 mg/ml) or EMS (0.0375 mg/ml) used was not toxic to the root meristem cells of A. cepa when compared to the water-treated negative control (p > 0.05)
Summary
Animals and animal products have been an important component of traditional medicine in practically every human culture in all parts of the world, used to treat and relieve a myriad of illnesses and diseases (Padmanabhan and Sujana, 2008). The concoctions used in traditional medicine are usually crude extracts in water, alcohol, distillates or essential oil, which contain many secondary metabolites (SMs) from several structural groups and their activity is often due to synergistic interactions of SMs present (Eid et al, 2012; Mulyaningsih et al, 2010). Many lipophilic SMs (especially those in essential oils) exhibit antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities (van Wyk and Wink, 2015)
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