Abstract
ABSTRACTThe relationship between energy use and height is examined for a sample of 611 office buildings in England and Wales using actual annual metered consumption of electricity and fossil fuels. The buildings are of different ages; they have different construction characteristics and methods of heating and ventilation; and they include both public and commercial offices. When rising from five storeys and below to 21 storeys and above, the mean intensity of electricity and fossil fuel use increases by 137% and 42% respectively, and mean carbon emissions are more than doubled. A multivariate regression model is used to interpret the contributions of building characteristics and other factors to this result. Air-conditioning is important, but a trend of increased energy use with height is also found in naturally ventilated buildings. Newer buildings are not in general more efficient: the intensity of electricity use is greater in offices built in recent decades, without a compensating decrease in fossil fuel use. The evidence suggests it is likely – although not proven – that much of the increase in energy use with height is due to the greater exposure of taller buildings to lower temperatures, stronger winds and more solar gains.
Highlights
Taking the domestic and non-domestic sectors together, the average annual turnover of the UK building stock is only 1% (Jones, Patterson, & Lannon, 2007)
Singlefactor analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were carried out using a 95% confidence level to determine the likelihood that mean energy use or emissions differ between groups
Disaggregate energy data from the Display Energy Certificate (DEC), Better Buildings Partnership (BBP) and Energy Challenge (EC) databases were used in conjunction with other building data as well as the results of a survey undertaken by the authors
Summary
Taking the domestic and non-domestic sectors together, the average annual turnover of the UK building stock is only 1% (Jones, Patterson, & Lannon, 2007). Significant improvements are required across both new and existing buildings to meet long-term national emissions-reduction targets. In order to ensure that any decisions about changes to the existing stock or the design of new buildings are made effectively, an understanding is required about the relationships between building characteristics and energy use. Despite perceptions that tall buildings are necessary to achieve high urban densities, research has shown that this is not the case. It is often possible to achieve the same densities as tall, freestanding towers with lower-rise buildings designed as slabs, terraces or courtyards (Steadman, 2014). Since the turnover of buildings is so slow, and the need for high-rise is debatable, it is important to examine the impact of built form design choices on energy performance
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