Abstract
Approaches to the avian trachea, lungs, and air cacs using fine-diameter, rigid, rod lens endoscopes are reviewed. Special emphasis is placed on the importance of regional anatomic knowledge, coupled with the use of high-resolution optics providing illumination and magnification. Normal structures are described and contrasted to common pathological conditions. Endoscopically guided biopsies, collection of other specimens, and removal of foreign objects are noted as techniques that are minimally invasive in small avian patients, yet frequently provide diagnostic information difficult or impossible to obtain otherwise.
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