Empty Promise: Black American Veterans and the New GI Bill

Examining both the GI Bill and the origins of desegregation of traditionally segregated institutions of higher learning in the South, this historical essay argues that these 2 separate historic markers should not be considered independently. Indeed, to understand the full scope of the GI Bill, we must consider the limited options that Black veterans had when it came to college admissions. Conversely, when considering the desegregation of historically segregated southern colleges and universities, we must also evaluate the strong will many Black veterans expressed in their desire to redeem the federal government's promise for a college education. Building off the body of critical scholarship published on the GI Bill, this article closely examines the enrollment and experience of the first 2 Black veterans to attend the University of Florida (UF), contextualizing the experiences of these veterans with that of other African Americans seeking to gain acceptance to historically segregated public universities in the United States. It also contrasts the African American veteran experience at UF with that of the first White veterans to attend UF following World War II.

Reviewed by: Oppression and Resistance in Southern Higher and Adult Education: Mississippi and The Dynamics of Equity and Social Justice by Kamden K. Strunk, Leslie Ann Locke, and Georgianna L. Martin Cindy Ann Kilgo OPPRESSION AND RESISTANCE IN SOUTHERN HIGHER AND ADULT EDUCATION: MISSISSIPPI AND THE DYNAMICS OF EQUITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE Kamden K. Strunk, Leslie Ann Locke, and Georgianna L. Martin New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017, 231 pages $119.99 (hardcover) $89.99 (ebook) "Thank God for Mississippi." It is a quote that opens Chapter 1 of Strunk, Locke, and Martin's (2017), Oppression and Resistance in Southern Higher and Adult Education: Mississippi and the Dynamics of Equity and Social Justice. It is also a quote that I, having spent half of my childhood in the Mississippi Delta and the other half in rural Georgia, heard often. As someone who has studied and continues to study higher education and student affairs, I am often disappointed that so many texts fail to provide examples or cases involving the southern United States and more specifically the Deep South. Often it is considered not transferable or generalizable to other regions of the U.S., given the unique and storied past of the region. When this book became available, it immediately sparked my interest and after reading and reviewing it, I can say that it certainly did not disappoint. The authors of this text built a compelling case within this opening chapter for why Mississippi, despite usually ranking last in (all) education markers, should in fact be studied. After the introductory chapter, the book is organized into three sections: (1) Oppression in Mississippi Adult and Higher Education, (2) Resistance in Mississippi Adult and Higher Education, and (3) The Dynamics of Equity and Social Justice in Southern Adult and Higher Education. Each section consists of two to three chapters. Further, each section integrates oppression and resistance related to multiple social identities, including race, sexuality, gender identity, and social class. I outline in my review below each of the three sections, as well as the relevance of this text to student affairs practice. Oppression in Mississippi Adult and Higher Education Chapter 2, "Conditions of Oppression in Mississippi Adult and Higher Education: The Legacy of White Supremacy and Injustice," detailed the contemporary segregation present within education systems in Mississippi. This chapter provided data to suggest that schools at all levels in Mississippi are "at least as segregated as they were before Brown v. Board of Education" (p. 33). The authors used publically-available data to illustrate the pervasive nature of educational oppression within the state. The authors also described the oppression faced by low-income students and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) students. Chapter 3, "Tracing the Development and Entrenchment of Oppression in Mississippi Adult and Higher Education," provided the historical side to Chapter 2. In this [End Page 171] chapter, the authors described the ways in which Mississippi remained segregated, partially due to the creation of White-flight private K-12 academies in protest of desegregation. The authors also provided data on the disproportionate state funding of public postsecondary institutions. Chapter 4, "Oppression and Resistance Timeline" was particularly intriguing, as it provided a tangible timeline of oppression and resistance within the south. This timeline functions as a way to transition from oppression within the state to highlighting the resistance efforts, both in the past and present. This timeline has great functionality and benefit to readers of all types, including within curricular or programmatic venues involving undergraduate students. Resistance in Mississippi Adult and Higher Education Chapter 5, "Black Resistance" outlined resistance from the antebellum period to today. The authors highlighted major players in the desegregation of Predominantly-White Institutions (PWIs) in the state, community efforts, and contemporary educational organizations. The authors focus on the ways in which resistance has occurred, despite the oppressive influences within the state. One section being titled, "Resistance May Get You Killed in Mississippi" (p. 118) illustrates the risk involved with resistance movements within the state and region. In Chapter 6, "Social Class and Resistance," the authors dove deeper into the inequities by race by also considering socioeconomic factors. The authors highlighted the interconnected nature of race and class...

This article analyzes the manner in which the Veterans’ Affairs Bureau of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) facilitated the discharge challenges of Black military veterans removed for same-sex intimacies, from 1944 to 1950. It argues that the Veterans’ Affairs Bureau’s general campaign to combat racism within the military and related bureaucracies created opportunities for Black veterans discharged for same-sex intimacies to challenge homophobia within these same entities. This particular moment of advocacy suggests that, far from exhibiting unyielding homophobia, the NAACP during the immediate postwar period engaged with Black queer individuals/communities in ways that were determined, in large measure, by the pursuit of racial equality and advancement. Relying primarily on the extant records of the NAACP, this essay makes three contributions to the existing historical studies about mid-twentieth-century Black freedom struggles. First, this article broadens the sexual politics associated with midcentury civil rights mobilizations to include emerging narratives of same-sex intimacies alongside long-standing assumptions of Black hyper(hetero)sexuality. Second, this essay demonstrates that the NAACP’s response to the removal of Black veterans using “blue discharges” was informed by a desire to facilitate equitable access to benefits associated with the GI Bill, as well as the disproportionate prosecution of Black men for sex-related statutes against rape and miscegenation. Third, this article contributes to the growing historical scholarship on the experiences of and communal attitudes toward Black queer communities.

FreeComparative and International Education: A Bibliography (2009)PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreAdult, Rural, Literacy, Vocational, Nonformal, Lifelong, and Popular EducationÅberg‐Bengtsson, Lisbeth. 2009. “The Smaller the Better? A Review of Research on Small Rural Schools in Sweden.” International Journal of Educational Research 48, no. 2 (June): 100–108.Alexopoulos, George, Alex Koutsouris, and Irene Tzouramani. 2009. “The Financing of Extension Services: A Survey among Rural Youth in Greece.” Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 15, no. 2 (June): 177–90.Bhola, H. S. 2009. “Reconstructing Literacy as an Innovation for Sustainable Development: A Policy Advocacy for Bangladesh.” International Journal of Lifelong Education 28, no. 3 (May): 371–82.Boshier, Roger, and Yan Huang. 2009. “Madame Li Li: Communist Revolutionary, Adult Educator, Lifelong Learner.” Studies in Continuing Education 31, no. 1 (March): 45–59.Brock, Andy. 2009. “Moving Mountains Stone by Stone: Reforming Rural Education in China.” International Journal of Educational Development 29, no. 5 (September): 454–62.Cornford, Ian R. 2009. “Mere Platitudes or Realistically Achievable? 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P. 2009. “Problems and Prospects of the Development of the Rural School in Russia.” Russian Education and Society 51, no. 7 (July): 3–12.Handa, Sudhanshu, Heiling Pineda, Yannete Esquivel, Blancadilia Lopez, Nidia Veronica Gurdian, and Ferdinado Regalia. 2009. “Non‐formal Basic Education as a Development Priority: Evidence from Nicaragua.” Economics of Education Review 28, no. 4 (August): 512–22.Hargreaves, Linda M. 2009. “Respect and Responsibility: Review of Research on Small Rural Schools in England.” International Journal of Educational Research 48, no. 2 (June): 117–28.Hargreaves, Linda, Rune Kvalsund, and Maurice Galton. 2009. “Reviews of Research on Rural Schools and Their Communities in British and Nordic Countries: Analytical Perspectives and Cultural Meaning.” International Journal of Educational Research 48, no. 2 (June): 80–88.Hillier, Yvonne. 2009. “The Changing Faces of Adult Literacy, Language, and Numeracy: Literacy Policy and Implementation in the UK.” Compare: Journal of Comparative and International Education 39, no. 4 (August): 531–46.Ireland, Timothy D. 2009. “Literacy in Brazil: From Rights to Reality.” International Review of Education 54, nos. 5–6 (December): 713–32.Kalaoja, Esko, and Janne Pietarinen. 2009. “Small Rural Primary Schools in Finland: A Pedagogically Valuable Part of the School Network.” International Journal of Educational Research 48, no. 2 (June): 109–16.Liu, Mingxing, Rachel Murphy, Ran Tao, and Xuehui An. 2009. “Education Management and Performance after Rural Education Finance Reform: Evidence from Western China.” International Journal of Educational Development 29, no. 5 (September): 463–73.Liu, Ning Rong. 2009. “Decentralisation and Marketisation of Adult and Continuing Education: A Chinese Case Study.” International Journal of Educational Development 29, no. 3 (May): 212–18.Lloyd, Cynthia B., Cem Mete, and Monica J. 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Higher Education in Nordic Studies of in and Sweden.” Studies in Continuing Education 31, no. 1 (March): B., and 2009.

Freedom is not free: Examining health equity for racial and ethnic minoritized veterans.

Globalization has become a household word, permeating workplaces and communities, while internationalizing the curriculum has become common practice, not just in higher education, but also reaching into the primary grades and outward into program planning efforts in the non-formal sector. Few fields, however, can claim two international bodies dedicated to the global nature of a field of study and practice, illuminating common issues and coalescing professionals in a common identity, namely: the governmentally based UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), and (b) the civil society-oriented ICAE (International Council for Adult Education), an association of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from around the globe. Professional identities may be varied. One may identify as an adult educator, continuing education professional, human resource development specialist, or by many other designations and titles in the adult lifelong learning movement. One may work with research, policy, or professional practice. Central, however, is the concept of development, not just of individuals, but of the contexts in which they find themselves--thus, organizational development, community development, national development and nation building, as well as societal and global development. UNESCO and ICAE play a complementary role in this vital endeavor. UNESCO and ICAE Approximately every 12 years, UNESCO (1) hosts an International Governmental Assembly on Adult Education, although the past two Assemblies (1997 and 2009) have focused on the term adult UNESCO has evidenced long-standing historical support of adult education as a field of study and practice. The first Assembly took place in Elsinore, Denmark during 1949, the second in Montreal, Canada during 1960, the third in Tokyo, Japan during 1972, the fourth in Paris, France during 1985, the fifth in Hamburg, Germany during 1997, and the sixth most recent during 2009 in Belem do Para, Brazil (and for the first time in the Southern Hemisphere). Originally scheduled for May, the Assembly was rescheduled for 1-4 December 2009 due to the then-impending HIN1 (Swine Flu) pandemic. The theme of the 2009 Assembly, CONFINTEA VI after a French acronym for International Conference on Adult Education (Conference Internationale de Educations des Adultes), was entitled Living and Learning for a Viable Future: The power of adult learning. The objectives of the Assembly were to (a) push forward the recognition of adult learning and education as an important element of and factor conducive to lifelong learning, of which literacy is the foundation, (b) highlight the crucial role of adult learning and education for the realization of current international education and development agendas (EFA, MDGs, UNLD, LIFE, and DESD) (2), and (c) renew political momentum and commitment and to develop the tools for implementation in order to move from rhetoric to action (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, 2010, p. 5). The UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) was officially entrusted with coordinating and guiding preparatory and post-assembly follow-up matters. Although the United States was integrally involved with the inception of UNESCO, the U.S. government withdrew from UNESCO in late 1984 just prior to the fourth Assembly held in Paris during 1985, and did not return to membership until 2002 (in actuality the announcement was made in 2002, but it took until 2003 to establish a U.S. UNESCO Office and Commission). Consequently, the United States was unable to send an official delegation to the fourth (Paris) and fifth (Hamburg) UNESCO Assemblies, although adult educators did manage a presence as observer teams, but with no voting privileges. CONFINTEA VI, accordingly, represents the first time the United States planned and organized its official involvement, including the appointment of a delegation, since the third Assembly in 1972--a 37-year hiatus from Assemblies and 18-year absence from UNESCO membership CONFINTEA VI is more a process than just one event suspended in time in that it includes preparatory events prior to the Assembly and monitoring mechanisms post-Assembly. …

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Reviewed by: Faulty Towers: Tenure and the Structure of Higher Education Deborah J. Taub Faulty Towers: Tenure and the Structure of Higher Education Ryan C. Amacher and Roger E. Meiners Oakland, CA: The Independent Institute, 2004, 137 pages, $14.95 (softcover) Faulty Towers is an odd book. Although both the book's subtitle and the information on the back of the book indicate that the subject of the book is the controversy over academic tenure, that is not the focus of the book at all. In fact, authors Amacher and Meiners essentially dispensed with the problem of tenure after the first two chapters (and an appendix outlining recent court cases regarding tenure). What Amacher and Meiners really wanted to talk about is what they perceive to be the structural problems in American higher education that prevent it from changing to be more efficient and more competitive. And, despite the rhetoric, tenure is not one of those problems. In the first two chapters of the book, Amacher and Meiners described the origins of tenure and its legal meaning. Supported by the court cases in the appendix, they demonstrated that incompetent faculty members, even if tenured, can be fired under the rules of tenure and that institutions of higher education can expect the courts to uphold these terminations. So, if not tenure, what are the sources of the problems in higher education? Because both authors are economists, it should not be surprising that their answer is framed by an economic perspective. This [End Page 359] perspective is expressed clearly in the introduction to the book, when Amacher and Meiners described higher education as "just another service institution" (p. xiii). They urged us to look, therefore, at the incentive system in higher education and at the design of higher education itself. The focus of chapter 3 is boards of trustees, college presidents, and upper administration. Faculty governance is scrutinized (and criticized) in chapter 4. The faculty reward structure ("incentives") is explored in chapter 5. In that chapter, the authors reminded the reader that the problem is not tenure, as is often believed, but the lack of incentives provided for faculty productivity and change; the root of the problem, they say, is the non-profit nature of higher education. Amacher and Meiners extended their business analogies in chapter 6, identifying higher education, particularly public higher education, as a bureaucracy like the Postal Service or the Internal Revenue Service. They drew comparisons to corporations, which they identified as having greater incentives to increase efficiency and quality. Finally, in chapters 7 and 8 Amacher and Meiners identified the reforms that they believe would improve American higher education. In chapter 7 they detailed a number of internal reforms that should be led by strong boards of trustees working with administrators "unthwarted by faculty tantrums about change" (p. 65). They called for the near elimination of institutional curricular decision-making by faculty committees, placing that power in the hands of trustees and administration, while giving individual faculty members and departments greater flexibility to try new things unconstrained by the status quo. In addition, they called for dissemination to students of information about course content, approach (including professors' political approaches), and student evaluations. They also made recommendations for reeling in grade inflation and for exit interviews (rather than alumni surveys) with graduates to determine what is and is not (and who is and is not) working. Chapter 8 focuses on external reforms. The authors rejected post-tenure review and instead made four broad recommendations. First, they recommended the elimination of centralized university systems and state boards. Such entities, they argue, drawing an analogy to the former Soviet Union, do not provide useful oversight, improved quality, or increased efficiency, but rather operate as barriers to change. Second, they advocated allowing public universities to set their own tuitions. Third, they called for a state voucher system for higher education – an idea they call "a 'GI Bill' for all students" (p. 86). Like the argument by advocates for the voucher system in K-12 education, Amacher and Meiners argued that such a system would increase competition, and therefore quality, in higher education. Finally, they suggested allowing states to decide if they wish...

A secondary data analysis of the 2001 National Survey of Veterans (NSV) for 2075 Gulf War-era veterans was conducted to investigate whether the GI Bill (the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, most recent provisions of which have been entitled the Montgomery GI Bill and the Post 9/11 GI Bill), considered as a social welfare policy, demonstrated protective effects for veterans with disabilities in terms of successful re-entry and sustained enrollment in higher education. Regression analyses to test the mediation effects of use of the GI Bill, use of non-Veterans’ Administration (VA) financial aid, and use of VA health services sug gested mediation effects; however, post hoc testing did not yield significant results. Analysis of this and an alternative multiple mediator model using bootstrapping strategies for assessing indirect effects suggested that total and non-labor income and social support, not the GI Bill, mediate the effects of disability on educational attainment among this population. Implications for social welfare policies and programs to support this population’s access to and success in post-secondary institutions are highlighted.

Objective To explore the strategies and methods of training teachers of adult higher medical education. Methods Through three levels management the perfect system of teachers＇ training of adult higher medical education is established. The college of adult education develops the plan and target for the teachers＇ training, and implements management by objectives, target controlling, supervision, coor-dination, evaluation, inspection, strict examination and giving rewards and punishments. The teachers who are with professor title, recommended by the department, enthusiastic in teaching, and willing to accept a teacher training are selected and examined. Results It improves the quality of teaching, and the students are satisfied with the teachers gradually. The satisfaction percentage runs up to 94. 2 in 2011. Conclusions It is a systematic engineering to train adult higher teachers. It is an important measure to improve the level of adult higher education and also an important guarantee for promoting quality education. Key words: Adult higher medical education; Teacher training; Access system; Practice

The post-9/11 global sensitivity to fear that from unreasoned radicals will come stalking in the dark of night has made finding a reasonable person who is unafraid of strangers hard to find. The elevated uses of language, rhetoric, and argument with very high vocabulary fog index, confronts any serious student of the literature, be it Christian-Muslim, capitalist-communist, or populist-elitist. The fear of terrorism penetrates much of political jawing. This type of rhetoric have produced cognitive debates that are shocking, if not terrifying, as average people try to find non-paranoid views of a decent and honorable life in a mostly safe world. As co-authors of the following conversation, we make transparent our belief in honoring the scholarship of adult educators who take a macro-political view of terrorism, and who consider the human dimensions of living day to day in an unsafe environment. Many adult education scholars are aware of the range of topics on the minds of adults who bring their hopes, fears, and experiences to graduate adult education study programs. American scholarship on adult education is replete with advocates who encourage, foster, and nurture learning climates that engage discussion, explore life's options, and an understanding of human desire to establish policies that promote and assure justice. But in the Arab Middle East, one is challenged to find such literature. We should know, since we are an Iraqi and an American engaged in dialogue about the significance of andragogy as a tool for rebuilding war-torn Iraq. We are Ghada and Larry. Ghada is an Iraqi doctoral candidate in adult and higher education and Larry is her doctoral advisor. We have been involved in intensive dialogue about how we see our cultures, how we perceive the conflict in the Middle East, and how andragogical theory offers hope for changing learning and teaching approaches that can influence political and social philosophies of leadership. Ghada believes that as a woman, wife and a mother of two boys from Baghdad, Iraq, and who experienced the bombings and terror, she has insights to bring to a mentoring relationship. Larry, as a senior professor in adult education, has made a lifetime study of Asia, but has found a certain value in learning and teaching with Ghada. Both have shared their perceptions of their cultures, including their concerns about potential conflicts from issues of oil, religion, governments, and families. This conversation is a reflection of our advocacy for andragogy as a tool for change and peace. We have written in a way that allow both of our voices to be heard; Ghada--from her experience as an Iraqi and as a U.S. doctoral student, and Larry--as a senior professor in adult education and educational administration. We talk about how an inclusive education can bridge two cultures, American and Arab together in meaningful ways. Following our conversations, our combined voices contemplate the following questions. What does Andragogy have to offer to people in cultures facing distress, conflict, and war? We poignantly ask ourselves, what is the relevance? And more importantly, why should we in the field of adult education care? An Iraqi Seeks Meaning in Adult Education Study Ghada: After struggling for two years to get the opportunity to go to the United States for doctoral studies, I did not know what to expect of American professors at the University of South Dakota. Would they be prejudiced toward my heritage? Would they be open to knowing me? Or, would they be dominating, self-important, or careless about morality as often portrayed in Western movies? Would I find new meaning in my studies? Would anyone care about me as a person? What I found was shocking. My professor turned out to be extraordinary. He was real, caring, and a good listener. He offered more than I expected, his ideas, empathy, and a willingness to share with me a deep concern for trying to make peace and meaning in the world. …

Adult education as a field has long espoused ideals of equity in educational opportunity. In recent years, there has been considerable debate regarding the degree to which our practice lives up to these espoused ideals. This debate has been reflected in a growing literature addressing issues of race, ethnicity, and gender as they relate to adult education practice, research, and theory development. Yet, surprisingly, this debate has rarely included attention to disabilities as a dimension of equity. An interest in the relationships among disability, adult learning, and adult education practice has been reflected, albeit modestly reflected, in adult education literature dating back to the 1970s and 1980s (Travis, 1979; Ross-Gordon, 1989). During the 1990s several book-length discussions of adults with disabilities with the adult educator as the intended audience emerged (Gadbow and Dubois, 1998; Vogel and Reder, 1998; Jordan, 1998). Recently books on disabilities that adult educators would also find useful have emerged from other fields, particularly the fields of learning disabilities and disability studies, (Albrecht, Seelman, & Bury, 2001; Gerber & Reiff, 1995; Gregg, Hoy, & Gay, 1996; Linton, 1998; Marks, 1999). In addition to concerns for equity, an awareness of the relationships between adult learning and disabilities is important from a legal perspective as we become increasingly cognizant of the implications of the Americans with Disabilities Act for adult education practice. This issue of Adult Learning is an attempt to bring disabilities to the forefront as a concern for those planning programs for adult learners across a spectrum of settings. The articles included represent some of the common settings for adult education, and particularly those settings where educators have already devoted some attention to disabilities. Adult Basic Education and GED preparation programs are the focal point for the articles by Poison and White and Sturomski and Auchter. Gadbow, Goss and Rocco have contributed articles that will have the greatest applicability to higher education settings. For those interested in discussions with relevance to the workplace, the articles by Gadbow and Rocco should be of interest. The article least tied to a particular context of adult education practice is that of Plotts. Aside from the practice setting, another way to view the organization of this issue is in terms of three themes represented by the six articles. While they take different approaches, Gloss and Plotts' articles deal with having a disability that may affect one's efforts as an adult learner. Reading these first may help the reader understand Rocco's discussion of disclosure of disability and how the decision of disclosing a disability is an individual choice that must be revisited with every new educational opportunity. Finally, several of the articles deal with what AL readers may be most interested to discover--ways to accommodate the needs of adults with disabilities when making instructional and assessment decisions. Plotts and Gloss focus on what it is like to have a disability that affects one's efforts as an adult learner. Plotts presents the perspective of the diagnostic expert on what it means to have one of three categories of disability which adult educations encounter with some frequency and confusion: Learning disabilities (ED), attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). She provides a succinct overview of the frameworks that serve as the basis for diagnosing these disabilities, as well as the legislative bases that necessitate appropriate accommodations for these disabilities across educational environments. She next describes the manifestations of each of these disabilities as they may be observed in the classroom or training setting, noting that while they may co-exist and even share certain indicators, they are each distinct in their characteristics. …

Comparative Studies in Adult and Lifelong Education

The Chinese always say “We walk on two legs” to describe their educational system. The expression has been used to describe the parallel existence of formal schools and informal adult education, two systems (the regular school and the work-study system) corresponding to two working systems. Recently it has also been used to refer to the coexistence of public schools and private schools. Closely involved with these, Chinese adult education has developed as one of the two legs and independently supports the Chinese educational system. What is more, adult higher education, a constituent of the adult education system, is rapidly developing as the Chinese economy develops, while also drastically changing its role and objectives. Thus, it is increasingly essential for us to keep track of Chinese adult education, especially adult higher education, to understand the evolution of Chinese education or even Chinese society.

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Additional informationNotes on contributorsCarolin KreberCarolin Kreber is assistant professor in adult and higher education, Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB; Patricia A. Cranton is professor of adult education, Department of Vocational and Adult Education, at the University of New Brunswick.Patricia A. CrantonCarolin Kreber is assistant professor in adult and higher education, Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB; Patricia A. Cranton is professor of adult education, Department of Vocational and Adult Education, at the University of New Brunswick.