Empowering Women Through Education: A Study of Rural Jammu and Kashmir

This paper examines the effect of the Saakshar Bharat Mission- 2012 in the district Chamba of Himachal Pradesh. Saakshar Bharat Mission was launched on the International Literacy Day, 8th September, 2009. The rationale behind the programme is to create a literate society through a variety of teaching learning programme for non-literate and neo-literate adults in the age group of 15 years and above with the prime focus on women. The programme is mainly focused on women as the magnitude of illiteracy among women is very high. Only 54.16% of women are literate as per 2001 census. The programme included 365 districts. These are those districts in which the female literacy rate is found to be less than 50% according to 2001 census. In Himachal Pradesh, Chamba district has been selected for the same as the female literacy rate according to 2001 census was 48.8%. Saaskshar Bharat Mission has left positive effect on the literacy rate of Himachal Pradesh. The literacy rate of Himachal Pradesh indicates an increase of 7.30% in 2011 census. The male (5.48%) and female (9.18%) literacy rate of Himachal Pradesh also increased. The district Chamba of Himachal Pradesh indicates an increase in literacy rate by 10.28% from 2001 to 2011. The male and female literacy rate in Chamba district is increased by 7.78% to 13.29% from 2001 to 2011. As far as gender gap in district Chamba is concerned it is decreased by 5.51%.

The literacy rate of a nation serves as a pivotal indicator of its developmental trajectory across the globe . However, in many developing countries, including those in South Asia, a notable gender disparity persists in literacy rates, with women lagging behind men. This study focuses on Nepal, a representative country in this region, utilizing data spanning thr ee decades from the National Population Census (1991 to 2021). The findings reveal a considerable rise in women's literacy rates over the thr ee decade period, marking a noteworthy shift from the substantially low rates observed in 1991. The trend consisten tly ascended in subsequent years 2001, 2011, and 2021 indicating a positive trajectory in female literacy. Crucially, an intriguing relationship emerged between women's literacy rates and family size. Historically, when female literacy rates were considera bly lower, the national average family size tended to be higher. However, with the progressive increase in female literacy rates in recent y ears, a marked shift toward smaller, nuclear family sizes, averaging around four members, was observed. This shift i mplies that literate women exhibit heightened self awareness regarding family planning, influencing the move toward maintaining smaller nuclear families. Notably, while male literacy rates exceeded 50% even three decades prior, solely bolstering male liter acy did not correlate with maintaining nuclear family sizes. The study emphasizes the unique effectiveness of female literacy in shaping and mainta ining the transition toward smaller nuclear family structures. These findings underscore the critical role of women's education in influencing family planning and size, marking a pivotal factor in shaping societal structures and developmental paradigms.

The present investigation aims to examine the geographical analysis of the correlation between female literacy and the juvenile sex ratio in Nashik district. The study is primarily based on secondary data collected from Nashik district's 2011 population census handbooks. The present paper is a major analysis of the female literacy rate, the juvenile sex ratio pattern, and its correlation with the study region. This research paper applies the literacy rate method, the juvenile sex ratio method, and the Pearson correlation coefficient technique. Nashik, Malegaon, Niphad, Yeola, and Deola tehsils showed high female literacy. In Dindori, Igatpuri, Baglan, Chandwad, Nandgoan, and Sinnar tehsils, there is moderate female literacy, while in highly concentrated tribal populations such as Surgana, Peint, Triembek, and Kalwan tehsils, there is low female literacy. Generally, developed regions exhibit high female literacy rates, while less developed regions, particularly tribal regions, display low female literacy rates. Only three tahsils, namely Peint, Trimbakshwar, and Surgana, exhibited a high juvenile sex ratio. Kalwan, Malegaon, Chandwad, Yeola, Baglan, Sinner, and Nandgaon had a moderate juvenile sex ratio, while Baglan, Chnadwad, Deola, Nandgaon, Niphad, Nashik, and Sinnar tehsil had the lowest. Tribal regions generally have the highest juvenile sex ratio, while urban areas have the lowest. The correlation analysis reveals a strong negative relationship between the female literacy rate and the juvenile sex ratio. Therefore, we can conclude that there is no significant relationship between the female literacy rate and the juvenile sex ratio level, and variations in the female literacy rate do not influence the juvenile sex ratio in the study region. The present paper gives a geographical analysis of the correlation between female literacy and the juvenile sex ratio in Nashik district.

Background:Educated women are known to take informed reproductive and healthcare decisions. These result in population stabilization and better infant care reflected by lower birth rates and infant mortality rates (IMRs), respectively.Materials and Methods:Our objective was to study the relationship of male and female literacy rates with crude birth rates (CBRs) and IMRs of the states and union territories (UTs) of India. The data were analyzed using linear regression. CBR and IMR were taken as the dependent variables; while the overall literacy rates, male, and female literacy rates were the independent variables.Results:CBRs were inversely related to literacy rates (slope parameter = −0.402, P < 0.001). On multiple linear regression with male and female literacy rates, a significant inverse relationship emerged between female literacy rate and CBR (slope = −0.363, P < 0.001), while male literacy rate was not significantly related to CBR (P = 0.674). IMR of the states were also inversely related to their literacy rates (slope = −1.254, P < 0.001). Multiple linear regression revealed a significant inverse relationship between IMR and female literacy (slope = −0.816, P = 0.031), whereas male literacy rate was not significantly related (P = 0.630).Conclusion:Female literacy is relatively highly important for both population stabilization and better infant health.

The present study attempts to ascertain the relationship between inadequate sanitation facilities and two key measures of the economic well-being of women in India: literacy rates and labor force participation rates. A two-stage regression model and correlation analysis are employed. All data is district-level for the year 2011. Results from a simple correlation analysis suggest that there is a positive correlation between latrine availability and female literacy rate but a negative correlation between latrines and the female labor force participation rate. Results from a twostage analysis, however, indicates that latrine availability is positively related to both female labor force participation and female literacy rates. These results suggest that the availability of latrines positively impacts the economic well-being of women. This is one of the first studies that examines the relationships between latrine availability and female labor force participation and literacy rates in India, and this is one of the few studies on this topic to use district-level data. Hence, these results are significant and suggest that the government of India should invest more in proper sanitation facilities for all of its citizens. These types of investments would greatly improve the economic lives of India’s women.

Using data from population based surveys; it has been tried to examine the extent of district-level wealth inequality in infant mortality in India, considering the districts as the units of analysis. Analysis shows that there was significant variation in infant mortality among districts of India. About one-fifth of the districts had IMR of above 65 of which more than 65% districts are economically backward. The degree of wealth inequality in infant mortality was higher among economically backward districts than that of economically well-off districts. Results from regression analysis suggest that the factors such as female literacy, proportion of households having toilet facility and female workforce participation rate are the most significant predictors of district level variation in infant mortality. The proportion of households having toilet facility has strong bearing on infant mortality, indicating that availability of basic sanitation would help in reducing infant mortality. The female literacy and female workforce participation rate have strong and negative effects on infant mortality. The magnitude of the coefficients for female literacy, proportion of households having toilet facility and female workforce participation indicates that the level of IMR would decline by 7%, 5% and 4% for every 10% increase in female literacy rate, proportion of households having toilet facility and female workforce participation rate, respectively. It has been found that the level of IMR is likely to be higher in northern region and Uttar Pradesh and lower in southern region of India.

Rapid decline in child sex ratio (CSR) is a serious problem with severe socio-economic, demographic and cultural implication. Using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) and Quantile Regression estimates for thirty five states and union territories of India, the paper tries to examine the determinants of child sex ratio. The results show that the female literacy rate has significant positive while male literacy and percentage share of the urban population have a significant negative association with child sex ratio in India. Decadal population growth rate has a significant positive association with rural child sex ratios but insignificant negative associated with urban child sex ratio. The revealing quantile regression estimates suggest that female literacy and decadal population growth rate have significant positive, while male literacy, urban population and infant mortality rate have a significant negative association at 0.10 quantile, where the problem is severe. The variables like urban population and infant mortality rate have significant lowest negative association at the upper tail (0.90 quantile) of the child sex ratio. Furthermore, the paper also highlighted regional variations through regional dummy variables. Coefficients of child sex ratio with regional dummy variables show that north west region has highest negative and southern region has a highest positive influence on juvenile sex ratio of India. Thus strengthening of female education and reduction in higher usage of sex determination tests and infant mortality rate is an utmost need for balancing child sex ratio in north and northwest region of India.

Female literacy is considered to be a sensitive index of social development compared to overall literacy rate. It is a well established fact that Female literacy is negatively related with fertility rate, population growth rate, infant and child mortality rate and shows a positive association with female age at marriage, life expectancy and participation in modern sector of economy (Rao 2008). However, in spite of special constitutional provisions and government efforts to improve the education, the gap between male and female literacy rate was quiet significant. Against this background the present study discusses some important perspectives on the female literacy rate existing in India and Karnataka. The paper is designed with the following objectives. 1. To discuss the present status of female literacy rate in India and Karnataka; 2. To discuss the hurdles of female literacy; 3. To suggest suitable policy measures to improve female literacy. The proposed study mainly is descriptive in nature. It solemnly based on secondary sources of data and information which is collected from the related sources as per need of the research.

To re-examine the form of the relationships between the global distribution of health professionals (physicians and nurses), gross national product per capita, female literacy, and infant and under-5 mortality rates reported in three papers by Robinson and Wharrad using more recent data. The secondary aim was to explore prior assumptions about the quality of the data, the homogeneity of the sample, and the form of the relationship. The analyses by Robinson and Wharrad did not take account of differences between developing and developed countries. Furthermore, the intervening years have seen changes in healthcare professional roles and their global distribution. Re-examination of these relationships is therefore timely. A secondary analysis of routinely collected data from international databases. A database was constructed from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Bank sources on 177 countries for around 2005. Regression analyses were performed first with number of physicians and of nurses per 1000 population as dependent variables and gross national product per capita, female literacy rates, and the Gini coefficient as independent variables; and second with all those variables as independent variables and infant mortality, under-5 mortality rates, and maternal mortality rates as dependent variables. There were clear and interesting differences between richer (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries and developing countries in the coefficients and in the power of the equations. The importance of understanding the implications of carrying out cross-country analysis and the urgent need for standardization of definitions in datasets are emphasized.

Background: Teenage pregnancy remains an important and complex issue around the world, with reports indicating that Africa has higher rates than other continents. Studies have indicated that social and economic determinants are associated with these higher rates. Therefore this study aims to identify the social and economic influencers of teenage pregnancy which would help develop a best-practice approach to reduce its incidence in Africa. Methods: Data sets from the World Bank Organisation between 2008 and 2010 specific to 51 Africa countries were obtained to conduct this study, based on availability. Independent t-test, Spearman’s correlation and regression analysis were performed. The eight social and economic variables used in this study are: GDP per capita, GINI index, Female Literacy rate, Health expenditure, Unemployed female rate, Gender equality, Contraceptive prevalence and urban population rate. Results: Independent t-test revealed that in countries where teenage pregnancy rate is high, Literacy rate, contraceptive prevalence rate and Healthcare expenditure rate was low. Spearman correlation indicated that female literacy rate, Healthcare expenditure, GDP per capita and Contraceptive prevalence had a significant inverse relationship with teenage pregnancy rate. Logistic regression indicates that Female Literacy rate is the best predictor of teenage pregnancy in Africa. Conclusion: Result suggest that a practical approach to reduce teenage pregnancy rate in Africa is to implement strategies and policies aimed at improving female literacy rate, Health care expenditure and the GDP per capita of a country. Additionally, an increase in female literacy rate would concurrently increase Contraceptive prevalence rate.

Background. The gross longitudinal relationship between female literacy and maternal mortality ratios has not been adequately investigated even though the knowledge of the relationship is crucial for designing maternal mortality reduction programs through female literacy campaigns and improvements. The objective of the study was to examine the dynamic relationship between female literacy and mortality ratios. A longitudinal study design spanning three decades, 1970–2000, was used. Country level data on 143 nations belonging to six geographical regions for the duration 1970–2000 were secured from websites hosted by global agencies such as World Bank and the United Nations were utilized. Maternal mortality ratios (1970–2000) ranged from 147 to 271 across the six regions. The longitudinal relationship between female literacy rates and maternal mortality ratios was examined using a latent growth curve approach. The study found that rates of change in female literacy and maternal mortality ratios are negatively related. Steady rates of increase in female literacy were associated with declining maternal mortality ratios as well. We find that female literacy programs are of immense value in reducing maternal mortality ratios given their ability to yield sustained reductions in mortality levels in developing countries.

Since Pakistan's inception in 1947, the government has made continuous efforts to provide free, universal, basic education to its citizens. This is evidenced by educational plans, policies, and five-year education sector reforms, including partnerships with international agencies and developed countries. However, these efforts have not yielded any gains for the citizens. Pakistan has a literacy rate of 49.9 percent, one of the lowest in South Asia and the rest of the world. Pakistan's male and female literacy rates are 61.7 percent and 35.2 percent. The female literacy rate drops to 25 percent in rural areas, and girls' school enrollment of fifty-five percent drops to twenty percent from Grade 1 to 6. For the purposes of these statistics, a literate person is defined by Pakistan's Ministry of Education as one who can read a newspaper and write a simple letter in any language. Pakistan's population of 167 million is sixty-five percent rural and thirty-five percent urban, with citizens facing multiple interlinked issues affecting their quality of life, such as illiteracy, poverty, and the lack of basic necessities (shelter, gas, water, and electricity). In addition, a culture of feudalism and patriarchy creates structures of power and control that deprive citizens of their rights, including that of education (Farah 2007; Latif 2009). Studies have been conducted on education in Pakistan,1 but they have been limited in scope in terms of girls' education. This article addresses the gap in female literacy scholarship. Its purpose is to critically analyze the state of girls' education in Pakistan in terms of three factors: the reasons for low literacy and school enrollment rates, gender biases in curriculum and textbooks, and cultural norms. Based on this analysis, the article concludes with measures to increase school enrollment and literacy rates for girls and women.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru once said: “If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if you educate a woman you educate a whole family. Women empowered means mother India empowered”. When women who contribute almost half of the population are empowered it will strengthen the national economy. Education is considered as a milestone for women empowerment because it enables them to respond to the challenges, to confront their traditional role and change their lives. Increasing access to education notwithstanding, gender discrimination still persists in India and lot more needs to be done in the field of women's education in India. Women have so much unexplored potential which has never been tapped. As education is both an input and input of human development, educational equity will ensure enabling and entrepreneurial development. Today, the female literacy levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46% where the male literacy rate is over 80%. Even beyond literacy there is much that education can do for women’s rights, dignity and security. Education is the key to unlock the golden door of freedom for development. Eileen Malone Beach sees education, health care, and income as a blessed trinity because they are so closely related. This paper discusses the impact of education on empowerment of women as well as the challenges and changes that we must have to deal with during the process. We call for a renewed emphasis on relevant, quality and holistic education to ensure the desired results.

We examine the consequences of parental control over choice of wives for sons, for parental incentives to educate daughters, in a dualistic transitional economy, where preferences conflict across generations and the marriage market exhibits competitive dowry payments. Parental control generates persistence of low levels of female literacy, despite economic growth. In steady state equilibrium, the female literacy rate is uniquely determined by the magnitude of male employment in the high wage sector. Income gains for men or women, larger returns to female literacy, lower returns from child labour and tax-subsidy interventions all fail to raise female literacy. Universal female literacy would result, despite dowry, if grooms themselves chose their brides.

Introduction: The historic revival of the political Islam late 1970s and the establishment of the Islamic Republic in Iran as an unprecedented form of government has attracted many international scholars for four decades. From the very beginning of this socio-political transition in Iran, the status of women and their rights and empowerment have been of high priority under an Islamic government. The Islamic Republic has become an enabling force to bring an exceptional opportunity for Iranian women to acknowledge their position in individual and social capacities. Simultaneously, the definition of womanhood and women’s social mission and role taking has changed a lot based on new Islamic cultural values and laws in the Islamic Republic. In parallel, some new and different interpretations came to surface in particular during Mohammad Khatami’s presidency and under the title of dynamic jurisprudence was giving way to Islamic feminism. Islamic feminists claim to re-interpret Quran and the Prophet’s Sunnah in terms of modern gender equality and women’s socio-political participation. However, “Islamic” and “feminism” sounds paradoxical to many critics, “Islamic feminism” is a named phenomenon and a theorized body of knowledge that got its climax in 1990s as it sounds to remain significant in the 21st century. Method: The present study is an attempt to seize the focal discursive nodes of Islamic feminism regarding both academic and journalistic literature with acknowledging the fact that many of the current Islamic feminists are not even located in Iran as they produce and publish such knowledge in European and American universities. The present study, thus, addresses various academic and journalistic publications to unveil the focal nodes that constructs the discourse of Islamic feminism in Iran. It has covered a vast literature including 40 articles, book chapters and books in the Islamic feminism genre to unveil its discursive construction in Iran. It employs Laclau and Mouffe’s approach to critical discourse analysis: it finds the most frequent concepts that imply the re-reading of Islam in terms of gender equality and women’s rights and empowerment. Results and discussion: The study indicates that Islamic feminism that has developed in response to the political Islam discursively focuses on four major themes, including a) criticizing the Islamic Republic for reductionism in women’s identity into the domestic and communal roles, b) emphasis on human dignity to achieve the legal equality, c) demand on halting gender-based discriminatory legislature, and finally, d) fostering women’s participation in civil society. Conclusion: To provide a compatible version of Islam with women’s modern needs and wishes is a dilemma with which many Muslim scholars and activists are faced. Islamic feminists in Iran challenge the pervasive narrative of womanhood post Revolution since they believe it has undermined women’s position as individuals and reinforced men’s power and control over women. Studies such as the present one paves the way for a vigorous dialogue between Islam and modernity in the field of gender. It draws the complex status of modern Muslim women in border thinking between Islam and modernity.