Emissions and spatial distribution of air pollutants from anthropogenic sources in Jakarta

Abstract

This study aims to develop emission inventory and emission spatial distribution of NOX, CO, PM2.5, PM10, NMVOC, BC, and SO2 from anthropogenic sources in Jakarta from 2015 to 2030, using 2015 as a baseline year. The results from this study can be very important to improve the emission data for Jakarta and contribute to the global emission model. Emissions of these pollutants were calculated using GAINS (Greenhouse gas Air pollution INteractions and Synergies) model, considering implementation of emission standards for transport and stationary combustion sources as well as policies stimulating accelerated electrification of vehicle fleets and vehicle scrapping programs. The impact of current policies to emission reduction was also evaluated in this study. The total 2015 emissions of NOX, CO, PM2.5, PM10, NMVOC, BC and SO2 were estimated at around 53 Gg, 144 Gg, 4.6 Gg, 6 Gg, 48.6 Gg, 1.2 Gg, and 20 Gg, respectively. The biggest contribution for NOx, CO, BC and NMVOC emissions originated from road transportation sector which contributed about 57%, 93% and 75%, 96% respectively, while for SO2, industrial combustion contributed about 67%. Heavy duty vehicles contribute the most NOx and BC emissions in the transport sector, while motorcycles emit the most CO. PM2.5 and PM10 in Jakarta are mostly emitted from road transportation and industrial combustion sectors, which contributed around 43%–46% for each sector. Heavy duty vehicles were still the highest contributor of PM2.5 emission in the transport sector. Based on emission spatial distribution and the AERMOD dispersion model, the highest concentration of all pollutants was found in the central of Jakarta, where traffic activities are very busy. Policy implementation could effectively reduce pollution levels in Jakarta. The accelerated implementation of electric vehicles, stringent emission standards, and transport management measures like electronic road pricing could significantly contribute to the reduction of PM2.5, PM10 as well as BC.