Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) for motor rehabilitation aim to “close the loop” between attempted motor commands and sensory feedback by providing supplemental information when individuals successfully achieve specific brain patterns. Existing EEG-based BCIs use various displays to provide feedback, ranging from displays considered more immersive (e.g., head-mounted display virtual reality (HMD-VR)) to displays considered less immersive (e.g., computer screens). However, it is not clear whether more immersive displays improve neurofeedback performance and whether there are individual performance differences in HMD-VR versus screen-based neurofeedback. In this pilot study, we compared neurofeedback performance in HMD-VR versus a computer screen in 12 healthy individuals and examined whether individual differences on two measures (i.e., presence, embodiment) were related to neurofeedback performance in either environment. We found that, while participants’ performance on the BCI was similar between display conditions, the participants’ reported levels of embodiment were significantly different. Specifically, participants experienced higher levels of embodiment in HMD-VR compared to a computer screen. We further found that reported levels of embodiment positively correlated with neurofeedback performance only in HMD-VR. Overall, these preliminary results suggest that embodiment may relate to better performance on EEG-based BCIs and that HMD-VR may increase embodiment compared to computer screens.
Highlights
Neurofeedback training produces beneficial changes in motor function and has been shown to be successful in motor rehabilitation for clinical populations, such as individuals with stroke [1].Electroencephalography (EEG) can be used to measure brain activity used by brain–computer interfacesSensors 2020, 20, 1204; doi:10.3390/s20041204 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors (BCI) to provide sensory feedback to reward specific brain activity patterns
Suggest to HMD-VR: perform independent of. These results suggest that participants seemed to perform independent of whether whether neurofeedback was provided in HMD-VR or on a computer screen
There was no significant difference in reports of Self Embodiment between the two conditions (t(11) = −0.10, p = 0.922, d = 0.03; Screen: M = 5.39, standard deviations (SD) = 1.17, HMD-VR: M = 5.43, SD = 1.76). These results suggest that neurofeedback presented in a first person perspective in HMD-VR may increase one’s feeling of embodiment compared to neurofeedback presented on a computer screen
Summary
Sensors 2020, 20, 1204; doi:10.3390/s20041204 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors (BCI) to provide sensory feedback to reward specific brain activity patterns. This feedback can be used to control a robotic or computerized device (e.g., movement of an object on a computer screen) to train individuals to control their own brain activity. BCIs designed for the rehabilitation of individuals with severe motor impairment attempt to “close the loop” between motor commands and sensory feedback by providing supplemental sensory information when individuals successfully establish specific brain patterns. Closing the loop is achieved when individuals perceive the control of supplemental sensory information as their own (i.e., embodiment). Perceived embodiment can influence an individual’s sense of agency [2] where greater embodiment may result in a sense of increased control, but a lack of embodiment may result in a sense of decreased control or distress and lead to a distortion of capabilities [3]
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