Abstract
This paper describes an electrochemical treatment process of hydrochlorothiazide (HDZ) under different conditions such as initial concentration, sodium chloride and applied voltage. In this present study, HDZ was treated by electrochemical oxidation process using graphite-PVC composite electrode as anode and Platinum (Pt) as cathode. All results were analyzed using liquid chromatography-time of flight/mass spectrometry (LC-TOF/MS). It was found that at high applied voltages, and high amounts of NaCl, the electrochemical treatment process was more efficient. The removal% of HDZ was 92% at 5 V after 60 min. From the obtained results, the electrochemical oxidation process of HDZ followed pseudo first order with rate constant values ranged between 0.0009 and 0.0502 min−1, depending on the experimental conditions. Energy consumption was also considered in this study, it was ranged between 0.9058 and 5.56 Wh/mg using 0.5, 0.3 and 0.1 g NaCl within interval times of (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 min). Five chlorinated and one non-chlorinated by-products were formed and analyzed in negative ionization (NI) mode during the electrochemical process. Due to the strong oxidizing potential of the chlorine (Cl2) and hypochlorite ion (ClO−), HDZ and its by-products were removed after 140 min. Furthermore, a novel synthesis of chlorothiaizde as one of the new by-products was reported in this present study. Toxicity was impacted by the formation of the by-products, especially at 20 min. The inhibition percentage (I%) of E. coli bacteria was decreased to be the lowest value after 140 min.
Highlights
It is well known that pharmaceuticals are biologically active compounds, often used to reduce pain in humans and animals
Removal of HDZ was investigated using an electrochemical treatment process under different the efficiency of electrochemical process was influenced by the generation of hypochlorite ions (ClO−), conditions such as initial concentration, applied voltage, and sodium chloride
The efficiency of electrochemical process was influenced by the generation of hypochlorite ions (ClO− ), which is the most effective oxidizing agent for the removal of pollutants
Summary
It is well known that pharmaceuticals are biologically active compounds, often used to reduce pain in humans and animals. In Malaysia, the analysis of pharmaceuticals is very rare except in some previous studies [1,2,3] The occurrence of these compounds was observed frequently in a Malaysian aquatic environment. The concentration of these pollutants is low in the environment, these pharmaceuticals may pose adverse effects on the organisms and humans due to long-term exposure [6,7,8]. Among these pharmaceuticals is hydrochlorothiazide, which is one of the most consumed drugs in Malaysia; between 2606 and 3443 kg/year was consumed from 2011–2014 as reported by the Ministry of Health [9]
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