Abstract
Carbohydrates are present on every living cell and coordinate important processes such as self/non-self discrimination. They are amongst the first molecular determinants to be encountered when cellular interactions are initiated. In particular, they resemble essential molecular fingerprints such as pathogen-, danger-, and self-associated molecular patterns guiding key decision-making in cellular immunology. Therefore, a deeper understanding of how cellular receptors of the immune system recognize incoming particles, based on their carbohydrate signature and how this information is translated into a biological response, will enable us to surgically manipulate them and holds promise for novel therapies. One approach to elucidate these early recognition events of carbohydrate interactions at cellular surfaces is the use of nanoparticles coated with defined carbohydrate structures. These particles are captured by carbohydrate receptors and initiate a cellular cytokine response. In the case of endocytic receptors, the capturing enables the engulfment of exogenous particles. Thereafter, the particles are sorted and degraded during their passage in the endolysosomal pathway. Overall, these processes are dependent on the nature of the endocytic carbohydrate receptors and consequently reflect upon the carbohydrate patterns on the exogenous particle surface. This interplay is still an under-studied subject. In this review, we summarize the application of nanoparticles as a promising tool to monitor complex carbohydrate-protein interactions in a cellular context and their application in areas of biomedicine.
Highlights
All living cells, including viruses, are covered by a distinct pattern of carbohydrates on their surface
In the field of biomedical research, nanoparticles coated with carbohydrates have been used extensively over the past decade since they are excellent tools to study the pathophysiological roles of carbohydrates present on microorganisms. Their frequent use is likely due to their high versatility in many aspects: An individual nanoparticle can be coated with defined carbohydrates, which are recognized by a receptor on the immune cell, enabling the study of carbohydratespecific responses and at the same time giving rise to valuable information on ligand multivalency in host-pathogen interactions
The reactive optoelectronic properties of nanoparticles can be moderated by the conjugation of organic molecules, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), on the nanoparticle surface, these materials can be used in clinical applications, making them very attractive tools (Phillips et al, 2014; Bobo et al, 2016)
Summary
All living cells, including viruses, are covered by a distinct pattern of carbohydrates on their surface. In the field of biomedical research, nanoparticles coated with carbohydrates have been used extensively over the past decade since they are excellent tools to study the pathophysiological roles of carbohydrates present on microorganisms Their frequent use is likely due to their high versatility in many aspects: An individual nanoparticle can be coated with defined carbohydrates, which are recognized by a receptor on the immune cell, enabling the study of carbohydratespecific responses and at the same time giving rise to valuable information on ligand multivalency in host-pathogen interactions. The mobility of ligands on nanoparticles can influence the free energy between ligands and receptors and thereby the endocytosis rate of the nanoparticle into cells (Schubertová et al, 2015; Zhdanov, 2017) In this perspective, it is interesting to compare the diffusion coefficient of glycolipids and glycoproteins present on viruses, bacteria, and eukaryotic cell surfaces. We will focus on how solid and lipid nanoparticles have been exploited to study biomedical questions in glycobiology
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