Abstract
Honeydew is considered a cornerstone of the interactions between aphids and their natural enemies. Bacteria activity occurring in aphid honeydew typically results in the release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are used by the natural enemies of aphids to locate their prey. Because atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration directly impacts the physiology of plants, we raise the hypothesis that elevated CO2 concentrations impact the quantity of honeydew produced by aphids, as well as the diversity and quantity of honeydew VOCs, leading to cascade effects on the foraging behavior of aphids’ natural enemies. Using solid-phase microextraction, we analyzed the VOCs emitted by honeydew from pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris) reared under 450 ± 50 ppm of CO2 (aCO2) or 800 ± 50 ppm CO2 (eCO2). While the total amount of honeydew excreted was only slightly reduced by eCO2 concentrations, we detected qualitative and quantitative differences in the semiochemistry of aphid honeydew between CO2 conditions. Three VOCs were not found in the honeydew of eCO2 aphids: 3-methyl-2-buten-1-ol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, and isobutanol. However, no difference was observed in the searching and oviposition behaviors of hoverfly (Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer)) females exposed to plants covered with honeydew originating from the different CO2 conditions. The present work showed the effect of a particular aspect of atmospheric changes, and should be extended to other abiotic parameters, such as temperature.
Highlights
Aphid honeydew is not just a waste product of sap-feeder insects [1], it is a key element in the interactions between aphids and other organisms, such as aphid predators (e.g., [2]), parasitoids (e.g., [3]), and mutualistic organisms (e.g., [4])
Most of the honeydew sugars are directly transferred from the phloem, but some are synthesized by aphids or through bacterial enzymatic activity [8]
When considering an equal aphid weight, colonies reared under aCO2 concentrations produced significantly more honeydew than those reared under eCO2 conditions, with 45.26 ± 3.40 μL 100 mg aphid d−1 versus 34.86 ± 2.98 μL 100 mg aphid d−1, respectively (Student t-test: t = 2.305, p = 0.034)
Summary
Aphid honeydew is not just a waste product of sap-feeder insects [1], it is a key element in the interactions between aphids and other organisms, such as aphid predators (e.g., [2]), parasitoids (e.g., [3]), and mutualistic organisms (e.g., [4]). This aqueous mixture is mainly made of sugars Bacteria from the genus Staphylococcus were identified from honeydew and contribute to the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in two aphid species [9,10]. Some of these compounds act as kairomones for aphid predators
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