Abstract
Abstract Various modes of action of the upper limb have been analysed. The muscle actions necessary to resist external forces have been calculated in greater detail than before. In particular, the effects of muscle actions concerned with hand function and wrist stabilisation have been allowed for at the elbow. Elbow joint forces and associated ligament actions have been found for maximal flexion, extension, pulling, abduction and adduction efforts. The results show humero-ulnar and humero-radial forces up to 3 kN in some activities, and provide basic data for designers of elbow joint replacements. The discussion considers the implications of these results for implant designers.
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