Abstract
The aim of this paper was to contribute to the elaboration of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis framework by testing eight hypotheses addressing the direct impact of gross motor coordination problems in elementary-school on selected physical, behavioral and psychosocial outcomes in adolescence. Results are based on a longitudinal sample of 940 participants who were (i) recruited as part of a population-based representative survey on health, physical fitness and physical activity in childhood and adolescence, (ii) assessed twice within 6 years, between the ages of 6 and 10 years old as well as between the ages of 12 and 16 years old (Response Rate: 55.9%) and (iii) classified as having gross motor coordination problems (N = 115) or having no gross motor coordination problems (N = 825) at baseline. Motor tests from the Körperkoordinationstest, measures of weight and height, a validated physical activity questionnaire as well as the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire were conducted. Data were analyzed by use of binary logistic regressions. Results indicated that elementary-school children with gross motor coordination problems show a higher risk of persistent gross motor coordination problems (OR = 7.99, p < 0.001), avoiding organized physical activities (OR = 1.53, p < 0.05), an elevated body mass (OR = 1.78, p < 0.05), bonding with sedentary peers (OR = 1.84, p < 0.01) as well as emotional (OR = 1.73, p < 0.05) and conduct (OR = 1.79, p < 0.05) problems in adolescence in comparison to elementary-school children without gross motor coordination problems. However, elementary-school children with gross motor coordination problems did not show a significantly higher risk of peer problems (OR = 1.35, p = 0.164) or diminished prosocial behavior (OR = 1.90, p = 0.168) in adolescence, respectively in comparison to elementary-school children without gross motor coordination problems. This study is the first to provide population-based longitudinal data ranging from childhood to adolescence in the context of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis which can be considered a substantial methodological progress. In summary, gross motor coordination problems represent a serious issue for a healthy transition from childhood to adolescence which substantiates respective early movement interventions.
Highlights
Recent research indicates that children with motor coordination problems often show reduced physical fitness (e.g., Schott et al, 2007) as well as an increased risk in becoming overweight or obese (e.g., Cairney et al, 2010a), which could be explained by a reduced participation in physical activity (e.g., Rivilis et al, 2011) especially concerning team sports (e.g., Poulsen et al, 2007)
When using the SDQ to screen for psychological distress as well as corresponding secondary risk and protective factors in future studies as recommended by Becker et al (2015), we propose applying the most recent four-band categorization on the basis of multi-informant data which ought to be assessed by use of consistent methodology
In matters of future genderspecific analysis our results indicate that girls are more likely to avoid organized physical activities as well as to bond with physically inactive peers, whereas boys are more likely to develop peer problems as well as an elevated body-mass
Summary
Recent research indicates that children with motor coordination problems often show reduced physical fitness (e.g., Schott et al, 2007) as well as an increased risk in becoming overweight or obese (e.g., Cairney et al, 2010a), which could be explained by a reduced participation in physical activity (e.g., Rivilis et al, 2011) especially concerning team sports (e.g., Poulsen et al, 2007). Besides the effects of motor coordination-related social interaction problems on the children’s family system and especially their parents (Stephenson and Chesson, 2008) who were—similar to the teachers—partially found to react in a negative way on comorbid behaviors such as inattention and task avoidance (Missiuna et al, 2006) and to more frequently assist and encourage their children (Pless et al, 2001), a decreased participation in social activities (e.g., Sylvestre et al, 2013) first and foremost affects the child itself. While the framework is based on Pearlin‘s stress process model (Pearlin et al, 1981; Pearlin, 1989), the term Environmental Stress Hypothesis was initially inducted by Cairney et al (2010b) and elaborated by Cairney et al (2013) in the context of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD; Blank et al, 2012)
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