Effects of school-based intervention program on motor performance skills

Abstract

IntroductionIt is crucial for children to master motor performance skills, such as running, jumping, climbing and throwing. The skills do not, however, come naturally, but need to be learned, practiced and reinforced (Gallahue et al., 2012; Logan et al., 2015). Research shows a positive relationship between physical activity and motor development (Fisher et al., 2005) and fitness (Stodden et al., 2007; Barnett et al., 2009; Lubans et al., 2010). Improvement of motor skills is associated with positive health-related outcomes, and with increased physical activity engagement (Okely et al., 2001; Lubans et al., 2010; Livonen et al., 2013: Catuzzo et al., 2016). Moreover, fundamental motor skills are the building blocks of more complex movements, which enable children to participate in sport and games that require more advanced movements (Logan et al., 2011). Therefore, it is important to promote physical activity and programs for the development of motor skills performance (Rietmuller et al., 2009).In school, motor performance skills not only allow children to carry out everyday practical tasks, but are also an important determinant of their level of self-esteem, and of their popularity and status in their peer group (Skinner & Piek, 2001). There is a suggestion that children having low skill performance may be drawn into a 'negative spiral of disagreement,' where low skill contributes to low perceived physical competence (Stodden et al., 2007; 2008). Motor skill competency is identified in the curriculum for the 10-year compulsory schooling in Norway as a quality goal in primary school physical education. However, motor skill performance mastery among children appears in some cases inadequately low, and children who lack the opportunity to practice often demonstrate delays in motor skill development (Erwin et al., 2008; Lubans et al., 2010; Mathisen, 2016).When teaching motor skill, educators strive to apply the best practice, and selected methods of learning and teaching may not have a strong scientific evidence base. One method of delivering instruction by physical education (PE) teachers is direct instruction, a method that is teacher-centered, goal-directed and orderly. Research in PE pedagogy has consistently provided support for the use of direct instruction to develop motor skills (Sweeting & Rink, 1999). However, creating a climate that supports the learning of motor skills, which gives the learner more freedom of choice and in decision-making, has been shown to be equally helpful in developing motor skills (Valentini et al., 1999). In accordance with the dynamical system approach, it is suggested that motor skill development is based on the interaction between constraints from the task, the organism, and the environment (Newell, 1984; Davis & Burton, 1991). Motor skills emerge within a dynamic system consisting of a specific task, performed by a learner with given characteristics, in a particular environment (Newell, 1984; Davis & Burton, 1991). Task-specific intervention was put forward by Revie & Larkin (1993) as a method for use with poorly coordinated children, and in contrast to those methods which focus on general 'abilities' or 'processes'. The approach is founded on the assumption that multiple subsystems must be organized and constrained in specific ways for a solution to the task to emerge (Revie & Larkin, 1993; Davis & Burton, 1991).Motor skills can be described as object control, e.g. skills like overarm throw, or locomotor skills, e.g. skills like jumping or climbing (Gallahue et al., 2012). The task indicate how the subjects must behave to complete the movement successfully. Competence in the different motor skills is positively associated with increased physical activity engagement (Lubans et al., 2010; Livonen et al., 2013), and it appears that improved performance in motor skills among children is positively correlated with participation in organized sport (van Beurden et al. …