Effects of individual life-history traits and weather on reproductive output of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus breeding in the Wadden Sea, 1991–97

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Capsule Annual breeding success was relatively constant and is shown to be related to clutch size and growth rate and to be positively affected by rain during egg-laying and advanced chick-rearing phase. Aims To provide the first long-term data on breeding success of Black-headed Gulls in the Wadden Sea, to analyse its intrinsic and environmental co-variates, and to re-assess the significance of the severe winter 1995/96 on reproduction. MethodsIn a relatively small colony at the Wadden Sea coast, clutches were selected randomly and enclosed to determine clutch size, egg biometrics, hatching and breeding success, and chick development in 1991 and from 1994 to 1997. Weather data (temperature, rain, wind) were related to life-history traits (clutch size, egg volume, chick development) and reproductive success. Results Mean annual breeding success was 0.7 fledglings per pair. In 1996, breeding success tended to be lower and chick growth rate was significantly lower. Hatching success was lower in small clutches, chick mortality increased with decreasing chick growth rate. Rain during the egg-laying phase increased clutch size and decreased clutch predation. Rain during the early post-natal phase impaired chick growth. Rain during the phase of linear growth affected chick growth and fledging success positively and brood predation negatively. Conclusions Breeding success of Black-headed Gulls breeding in the Wadden Sea is relatively constant between years, probably due to the use of terrestrial and marine feeding habitats. Rain may increase the availability of intertidal and terrestrial prey and thus may affect time budgets and food provisioning of parents positively. Lower breeding success in 1996 might have been caused by a relatively dry breeding season and possibly by the preceding severe winter.