Abstract
The hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis plays a crucial role in the metabolism, homeostasis, somatic growth and development of teleostean fishes. Thyroid hormones regulate essential biological functions such as growth and development, regulation of stress, energy expenditure, tissue compound, and psychological processes. Teleost thyroid follicles produce the same thyroid hormones as in other vertebrates: thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), making the zebrafish a very useful model to study hypo- and hyperthyroidism in other vertebrate taxa, including humans. Here we investigate morphological changes in T3 hyperthyroid cases in the zebrafish to better understand malformations provoked by alterations of T3 levels. In particular, we describe musculoskeletal abnormalities during the development of the zebrafish appendicular skeleton and muscles, compare our observations with those recently done by us on the normal developmental of the zebrafish, and discuss these comparisons within the context of evolutionary developmental pathology (Evo-Devo-Path), including human pathologies.
Highlights
Thyroid hormones regulate essential biological functions such as growth and development, regulation of stress, energy expenditure, tissue compound, and multiple other processes[1,2,3]
We investigate in detail the effects of hyperthyroidism in the developmental of the appendicular skeleton and muscles of zebrafish, compare our observations with those recently done by us on the normal developmental of these fishes[49], and discuss our comparisons within the context of evolutionary developmental pathology (Evo-Devo-Path, see Discussion below), including human pathologies
Animals were euthanized at stage 48 hpf with notochord length (NL) 3 mm; the ones that were alive were euthanized every day starting from the hatching, and so on: 3 to 5 fishes were euthanized with the overdose of anesthetic MS-222 (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) and fixed for 12–14 h at 4 °C in 4% paraformaldehyde (Panreac, Spain) in 0.01 M phosphate buffer saline (PBS pH 7.4, Gibco, Germany) supplemented with 10 μl of 0.5% Alizarin Red (Sigma, USA) diluted in water per 1 ml of the fixation solution
Summary
Thyroid hormones regulate essential biological functions such as growth and development, regulation of stress, energy expenditure, tissue compound, and multiple other processes[1,2,3]. The HPT axis plays a crucial role in the metabolism, homeostasis, somatic growth and development of teleosts It influences the activity of a wider variety of tissues and processes than do any other endocrine axes[9,10]. T3 affects the transcription of target genes via binding to specific receptors, TRα and TR β with high sequence homology to mammals[30,39,40] It affects the metabolic rate[41,42], cardiac function[42], development of brain and spinal cord[34,35], development of immune system[43], different parts of the skeleton[36,44,45], skin and pigment patterning[46,47], muscle physiology[48], and orchestrates the larva-juvenile transition[22,23]. We investigate in detail the effects of hyperthyroidism in the developmental of the appendicular skeleton and muscles of zebrafish, compare our observations with those recently done by us on the normal developmental of these fishes[49], and discuss our comparisons within the context of evolutionary developmental pathology (Evo-Devo-Path, see Discussion below), including human pathologies
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