Effects of Human Disturbance on Terrestrial Apex Predators

Andrés Ordiz,Jens Persson,Jonas Kindberg,Malin Aronsson,Jon E Swenson,Ole-Gunnar Støen

doi:10.3390/d13020068

Abstract

The effects of human disturbance spread over virtually all ecosystems and ecological communities on Earth. In this review, we focus on the effects of human disturbance on terrestrial apex predators. We summarize their ecological role in nature and how they respond to different sources of human disturbance. Apex predators control their prey and smaller predators numerically and via behavioral changes to avoid predation risk, which in turn can affect lower trophic levels. Crucially, reducing population numbers and triggering behavioral responses are also the effects that human disturbance causes to apex predators, which may in turn influence their ecological role. Some populations continue to be at the brink of extinction, but others are partially recovering former ranges, via natural recolonization and through reintroductions. Carnivore recovery is both good news for conservation and a challenge for management, particularly when recovery occurs in human-dominated landscapes. Therefore, we conclude by discussing several management considerations that, adapted to local contexts, may favor the recovery of apex predator populations and their ecological functions in nature.

Highlights

Humans and our activities have transformed planet Earth to the extent that no ecosystem is free of human influence [1], both in aquatic [2] and terrestrial realms [3]
We focus on terrestrial apex predators, i.e., large carnivores at the top of trophic chains, typically characterized by large body size, low densities, and large home ranges, whose abundance is usually not determined by other predators, but by factors like food availability [5]
Increasing predation by brown bears (Ursus arctos) and cougars and increasing numbers of alternative prey are turning what was a simpler prey—predator interaction into a more complex system [44]. This highlights the role of predation as an ecological function of complete large carnivore guilds, as shown elsewhere [53]

Summary

Introduction

Humans and our activities have transformed planet Earth to the extent that no ecosystem is free of human influence [1], both in aquatic [2] and terrestrial realms [3]. The return of large carnivores is good news, but it comes with several challenges, including potential threats, real or perceived, to human lives [19] and conflict with human activities [20,21]. This situation requires improved methods for population monitoring and forecasting to ease conservation and management [22,23]. We conclude by suggesting management considerations based on this review

Apex Predator Function in Ecosystems

Effects of Human Activities on Large Carnivore Behavior

Behavioral Responses of Large Carnivores to Human Disturbance May Alter Their

What Next?

Findings

Management Considerations