Effects of freeze-thaw cycles on the spatial distribution of soil total nitrogen using a geographically weighted regression kriging method

Abstract

Freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs) change the soil physicochemical properties and biogeochemical cycles and possibly also change the spatial heterogeneity of soil total nitrogen (TN) in the watershed. In this study, 912 soil samples were collected at 0–5 cm, 5–10 cm and 10–20 cm soil depths in the autumn and the spring of next year after FTCs of 2016–2017 and 2017–2018 in a Mollisol watershed (1.86 km2) of northeast China. The field investigations combined with classical statistics and geographically weighted regression kriging (GWRK) were used to explore the spatiotemporal distribution of TN before and after FTCs. Terrain information (e.g., slope aspect) and land management (e.g., tillage method) was main covariates were used for GWRK. The results showed the following. (1) TN decreased by 3.7–5.7% after FTCs at 0–20 cm soil depths at the watershed scale, decreasing more than 60% of the total watershed area. (2) The spatial pattern of TN did not change in the field with slope aspects and tillage methods after FTCs, but it changed with slope steepness and land uses. (3) TN was mainly influenced by snowmelt erosion during FTCs. TN increased in parts of the top slope, at land use intersection, in gully banks and at the watershed outlet. (4) Simulation accuracy of GWRK was higher than ordinary kriging (OK) for predicted TN at 0–20 cm soil depths before and after FTCs. (5) Spatial distribution of soil TN after FTCs can be predicted (R2 = 0.521, p < 0.0001) and validated (R2 = 0.494, p < 0.0001) using the data before FTCs based on GWRK. Generally, to reduce N loss and increase farmland fertility after FTCs, conservational techniques, e.g., tillage and straw amendment, could be used, especially in the middle slope positions. Moreover, fertilization should be appropriately reduced in parts of the watershed after FTCs, especially on the top slope, land use intersection and watershed outlet.