Abstract
The renin–angiotensin system (RAS) is classically known as an endocrine system that regulates cardiovascular and fluid–electrolyte balance. In addition, there are local RASs in a variety of organs, such as heart, vasculature, kidney, adrenal glands, and brain. These local RASs contribute to the endocrine RAS functions and also have organ-specific functions. Both physical and emotional stressors induce activation of endocrine and local RASs designed to preserve cardiovascular homeostasis.
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