Abstract
Human milk (HM) components influence infant feeding patterns and nutrient intake, yet it is unclear how they influence gastric emptying (GE), a key component of appetite regulation. This study analyzed GE of a single breastfeed, HM appetite hormones/macronutrients and demographics/anthropometrics/body composition of term fully breastfed infants (n = 41, 2 and/or 5 mo). Stomach volumes (SV) were calculated from pre-/post-feed ultrasound scans, then repeatedly until the next feed. Feed volume (FV) was measured by the test-weigh method. HM samples were analyzed for adiponectin, leptin, fat, lactose, total carbohydrate, lysozyme, and total/whey/casein protein. Linear regression/mixed effect models were used to determine associations between GE/feed variables and HM components/infant anthropometrics/adiposity. Higher FVs were associated with faster (−0.07 [−0.10, −0.03], p < 0.001) GE rate, higher post-feed SVs (0.82 [0.53, 1.12], p < 0.001), and longer GE times (0.24 [0.03, 0.46], p = 0.033). Higher whey protein concentration was associated with higher post-feed SVs (4.99 [0.84, 9.13], p = 0.023). Longer GE time was associated with higher adiponectin concentration (2.29 [0.92, 3.66], p = 0.002) and dose (0.02 [0.01, 0.03], p = 0.005), and lower casein:whey ratio (−65.89 [−107.13, −2.66], p = 0.003). FV and HM composition influence GE and breastfeeding patterns in term breastfed infants.
Highlights
Breastfeeding and its longer duration are associated with reduced risks of developing obesity and other chronic non-communicable diseases later in life [1,2]
Nutrients 2017, 9, 15 agents influence the growth, development, and function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract during early infancy [8], while some micronutrients act as nutritional antioxidants, improving GI functions [9]; there is much to be learned about the spectrum of human milk (HM) programming agents, how their patterns change throughout lactation period, and their short-term effect on the gastric emptying (GE)
This study investigated the effects of HM appetite hormones and macronutrients on feeding frequency and GE
Summary
Breastfeeding and its longer duration are associated with reduced risks of developing obesity and other chronic non-communicable diseases later in life [1,2]. This unique protection could be the result of many mechanisms associated with both nutritive and non-nutritive components of human milk (HM) [3] as well as breastfeeding patterns and behaviour [4,5]. While well studied in the preterm population [12,13,14], in healthy term fully breastfed infants the GE rate and its relationship with breastfeeding patterns are not fully understood
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