Abstract
When conserving or protecting rare or endangered species, current general guidelines for reducing light pollution might not suffice to ensure long-term threatened species’ survival. Many protected areas are exposed to artificial light at levels with the potential to induce ecological impacts with unknown implications for the ecosystems they are designated to protect. Consequently, it is recommended that precautionary methods for the avoidance and mitigation of light pollution in protected areas be integrated into their management plans. This paper’s aims are to present an overview of best practices in precautionary methods to avoid and mitigate light pollution in protected areas and to identify and discuss what ecosystems should be considered light-sensitive and how to prioritise species and habitats that need protection from artificial light, including examples of legislation covering ecological light pollution in the European Union and in Sweden. The important aspects to include when considering light pollution at a landscape level are listed, and a proposal for prioritisation among species and habitats is suggested. Sensitive and conservation areas and important habitats for particularly vulnerable species could be prioritised for measures to minimise artificial lighting’s negative effects on biodiversity. This may be done by classifying protected natural environments into different zones and applying more constrained principles to limit lighting. The light pollution sensitivity of various environments and ecosystems suggests that different mitigation strategies and adaptations should be used depending on landscape characteristics, species sensitivity and other factors that may determine whether artificial light may be detrimental. Issues of the currently used measurement methods for artificial light at night are reviewed. We also propose and discuss the principles and benefits of using standardized measurement methods and appropriate instrumentation for field measurements of artificial light concerning the environmental impact of light pollution.
Highlights
Ecological impact of artificial light can be expected to various extents in natural environments, but not all environments have equal importance regarding biodiversity and conservation
Not all protected areas will suffer from exposure to artificial light since it depends on the location and what species inhabit the areas
Sensitive areas, conservation areas and areas of importance for sensitive species could be prioritised for measures to minimise the negative effects of artificial lighting on biodiversity
Summary
Protected areas are already exposed to artificial light at levels with the potential to induce ecological impacts with unknown implications for the ecosystems they are designated to protect [21–23]. Precautionary methods and principles should be integrated in the management plans of protected areas, focusing on local impact, and in national legislation or guidelines to control light pollution on a large scale, such as skyglow. The aim of this review paper is to present an overview of the best practices of various precautionary methods for avoidance and mitigation of light pollution in protected areas and identify what ecosystems should be considered light-sensitive and how to prioritise species and areas that need protection, giving examples of legislation that covers ecological light pollution.
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