Early millet use in northern China

Tolerance of foxtail, proso and pearl millets to saflufenacil

Deciphering responses of bacterial communities to environmental change, and understanding how communities assemble in response to environmental change, are important subjects. The assembly processes governing the rhizosphere bacterial communities of minor grain crops are rarely explored based on regional scales, especially in terms of the environmental adaptation. Here, we investigated the environmental thresholds and phylogenetic signals for ecological preferences of rhizosphere bacterial communities of three minor grain crop taxa across complex environmental gradients to reflect their environmental adaptation. Additionally, we reported environmental factors affecting their community assembly processes based on a large‐scale soil survey in agricultural fields across northern China using high‐throughput sequencing. The results demonstrated a narrower range of environmental thresholds and weaker phylogenetic signals for the ecological traits of rhizosphere bacteria in proso millet than in foxtail millet and sorghum fields. The proso millet rhizosphere community was the most phylogenetically clustered. Null model analysis indicated that homogeneous selection belonging to deterministic processes governed the sorghum rhizosphere community, whereas dispersal limitation belonging to stochastic processes was the critical assembly process in the foxtail millet and proso millet. Mean annual temperature was the decisive factor for adjusting the balance between stochasticity and determinism of the foxtail millet, proso millet and sorghum rhizosphere communities. A higher temperature resulted in stochasticity in the proso millet and sorghum communities. For the foxtail millet community, the deterministic assembly increased with an increase in temperature. These results contribute to the understanding of rhizosphere‐associated bacterial community assembly processes in agro‐ecosystems on a large scale. Highlights Proso millet rhizosphere bacterial taxa exhibited weaker environmental adaptation than foxtail millet and sorghum taxa. Determinism governed the sorghum rhizosphere community, whereas stochasticity was the critical assembly process in the foxtail and proso millet. Mean annual temperature mediated balance between stochastic and deterministic processes.

Abstract. Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n=538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum (8000–6000 cal. a BP) and Miaodigou Age (6200–5500 cal. a BP). It spread westward and northward from the MLY to APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (∼ 80 %), while those in APE focused on both foxtail (∼ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze ages in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human–environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6669730 (He et al., 2022).

Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), were initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n = 538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum and Miaodigou Age. It spread westward and northward from the MLY to the APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (~ 80 %), while those in the APE emphasized on both foxtail (~ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human-environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368 (He et al., 2022)

Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), were initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n = 538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum and Miaodigou Age. It spread westward and northward from the MLY to the APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (~ 80 %), while those in the APE emphasized on both foxtail (~ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human-environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368 (He et al., 2022)

Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), were initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n = 538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum and Miaodigou Age. It spread westward and northward from the MLY to the APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (~ 80 %), while those in the APE emphasized on both foxtail (~ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human-environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368 (He et al., 2022)

Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), were initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n = 538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum and Miaodigou Age. It spread westward and northward from the MLY to the APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (~ 80 %), while those in the APE emphasized on both foxtail (~ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human-environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368 (He et al., 2022)

<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (<em>Panicum miliaceum</em>) and foxtail millet (<em>Setaria italica</em>), were initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n = 538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum and Miaodigou Age. It spread westward and northward from the MLY to the APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (~ 80 %), while those in the APE emphasized on both foxtail (~ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human-environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368</a> (He et al., 2022)

It is generally recognized that millet agriculture originated in northern China. However, the domestication process of foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) and broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ) is still poorly understood. Based on statistical and morphological analyses of ancient millet starch grains, a tangible hypothesis has been proposed for the long-term domestication of green foxtail millet ( S. viridis ). However, the hypothesis requires validation by evidence from more regions and more archaeological finds. The West Liaohe region is one of the earliest regions of millet cultivation. Here, we report ancient starch grains recovered from 12 stone grinding tools from eight sites of the Xiaohexi culture (before 8.5 ka BP), Xinglongwa culture (8.2–7.4 ka BP), Zhaobaogou culture (7.0–6.4 ka BP), and Hongshan culture (6.5–5.0 ka BP) in the West Liaohe region of China. Our results indicate that the proportion of millet starch grains with wrinkled surfaces and rough edges, which are diagnostic of wild millet grasses, decreased from 13.0% to 3.4% from the Xiaohexi culture to the Hongshan culture. Millet starch grains measuring >16.8 μ m, a size class recorded only in domesticated foxtail millet, increased from 55.0% to 62.1%. These millet data imply that the process of millet domestication in the West Liaohe region began in the Xiaohexi period and continued up to the Hongshan period.

In undertaking a functional study of ceramic Li tripods, a common archaeological artifact in Northeast China during the Bronze Age, this study provides a crucial insight into both the function of these ceramics, plant resource strategies and human diets during this period. The precise function of the Li tripod has to date been controversial due to a lack of direct contextual evidence. Hence, this paper presents analyses of 10 Li tripods from six sites in the Chifeng area of Northeast China, all of which can be dated from their excavation contexts to the Lower Xiajiadian cultural period (3,900–3,400 cal a B.P.). The interior and exterior surfaces of the tripods were analyzed using starch grain analysis, phytolith analysis and microfossil charcoal analysis. A total of 133 starch grains were recovered, of which 111 (83.46%) were found on 80% of the interior surfaces examined. Further analysis found that these starch grains had damage features specifically gelatinised characteristics, which were consistent with the starch grains that had been boiled in our cooking simulations. In addition, there were obvious soot traces on the surfaces of the tripods, 2,835 microfossil charcoal grains not completely burned were identified, and 70% of the exterior surface samples had a higher frequency of contact with fire. These findings serve to confirm that Li tripods were used in the cooking of food. Of the 133 starch grains found, only 62 could be identified to species level. These were foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum milliaceum) and plants from Triticeae taxa, as well as roots and tubers. The 3,424 phytoliths recovered from the 10 tripods were found to belong to the Panicoideae and Pooideae genera, of which the husks from foxtail and broomcorn millets from the Panicoideae genus accounted for 6.19% of the total. These results indicate that millets, the Triticeae, roots, and tubers, in addition to plants from Panicoideae and Pooideae genera, were utilized in the Chifeng area of Northeast China during the Bronze Age. This study deepens our understanding of the local subsistence patterns and the social context of early Bronze age civilization in the region.

Millets have substantial benefits as a drought-resistant crop, yield good productivity in the areas with water scarcity, possesses remarkable edibles and nutritive values. Nutritional quality of food is the most important parameter for maintaining human health and complete physical wellbeing. Since nutritional wellbeing is the driving force for development and maximization of human genetic potential. Therefore the study was undertaken to investigate the nutrient composition of selected minor millet. The mean moisture content of millet ranged from 8.0 to 10.1 percent. Among the minor millet proso (12.3g/100g) and foxtail millet (12.0g/100g) showed the highest protein content than other millets and lowest was in barnyard millet (6.3g/100g). Fat and ash content in millets ranged from 0.9 to 4.4g/100g and 1.3 to 2.0g/100g respectively. The highest crude fiber content was recorded in barnyard millet (9.9g/100g), followed by kodo millet (9.2g/100g) and lowest in proso millet (2.3g/100g). Carbohydrate content in finger millet was significantly higher (76.3g/100g), followed by proso millet (74.0g/100g) and least was recorded in foxtail millet (67.0g/100g). The energy value of selected millets ranged from 330 to 362 Kcal. Results showed that ‘F’ value indicated a significant difference to exist among the selected millets for all the nutrients studied (p≤0.05). Millets have substantial benefits as a drought-resistant crop, yield good productivity in the areas with water scarcity, possesses remarkable edibles and nutritive values. Nutritional quality of food is the most important parameter for maintaining human health and complete physical wellbeing. Since nutritional wellbeing is the driving force for development and maximization of human genetic potential. Therefore the study was undertaken to investigate the nutrient composition of selected minor millet. The mean moisture content of millet ranged from 8.0 to 10.1 percent. Among the minor millet proso (12.3g/100g) and foxtail millet (12.0g/100g) showed the highest protein content than other millets and lowest was in barnyard millet (6.3g/100g). Fat and ash content in millets ranged from 0.9 to 4.4g/100g and 1.3 to 2.0g/100g respectively. The highest crude fiber content was recorded in barnyard millet (9.9g/100g), followed by kodo millet (9.2g/100g) and lowest in proso millet (2.3g/100g). Carbohydrate content in finger millet was significantly higher (76.3g/100g), followed by proso millet (74.0g/100g) and least was recorded in foxtail millet (67.0g/100g). The energy value of selected millets ranged from 330 to 362 Kcal. Results showed that ‘F’ value indicated a significant difference to exist among the selected millets for all the nutrients studied (p≤0.05).

BACKGROUND: Millets are a group of variable small seeded grass, widely grown around the world as cereals crop. The finger millet had more moisture and calcium content. Whereas, fat content was least when compared to three other different millets. Foxtail millets had more protein content, pearl millets had more zinc and proso millets had more carbohydrate and fat content. AIM: To determine the proximate constituent and micronutrient content of finger millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet and proso millet. OBJECTIVES: To analyse the moisture, carbohydrate, fat, and protein content of finger millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, proso millet by standard methods of AOAC. To analyse the calcium and zinc content of finger millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, proso millet by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.MATERIALS AND METHODS: Proximate analysis of samples (moisture content, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium and zinc) was performed by standard methods of Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC).RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The mean values of finger millet for moisture content (12.86 ± 0.95) had highest and fat content (1.58 ± 0.36) was least. In foxtail millet protein content (12.94 ± 0.87) was highest and in pearl millet zinc content (3.29 ± 0.47) was highest. In proso millet fat content (12.80 ± 0.30) and carbohydrate content 75.06 ± 7.3) was highest when compared to the other millet. Calcium (344.45 ± 2.62) had highest in finger millet whereas pearl millet zinc content (3.29 ± 0.47) was highest when compared to the other millets. Hence, the study results can be useful for informing the people to select the different millets depending upon the nutritional needs.

Broomcorn and foxtail millet were the most important crops in northern China during the Neolithic period. Although the significance of broomcorn millet in human subsistence exceeded that of foxtail millet during the early Neolithic, this pattern was reversed by the end of Neolithic period. However, the process underlying this shift remains unclear. The recent excavation of the Gedachuan (GDC) in Zhangjiachuan county has revealed an abundance of relics including millet crop remains from relatively continuous strata of the Yangshao and Qijia cultures, and therefore provides a unique opportunity to examine how and when foxtail millet replaced broomcorn millet as the dominant crop in the western Loess Plateau during the Neolithic period. In this study, we identify 1,738 and 2,686 broomcorn and foxtail millet remains, respectively, from 74 flotation samples, accounting for 38.81% and 59.98% of total plant remains, respectively. Compared with 23 direct dates of carbonized crop grains in GDC, we propose that the weight of foxtail millet in plant subsistence of GDC first exceeded that of broomcorn millet as early as ∼5,500 BP, filling an important gap in the archaeobotanical record from the western Loess Plateau. Further comparative analysis of multidisciplinary data suggests the shift in significance of these two millet crops during the late Neolithic may have been triggered by variations in human settlement intensity and climate change in the western Loess Plateau. The results of this study also suggest that the Banpo Phase of Yangshao Culture survived in the western Loess Plateau as late as ∼5,600 BP.

Research on the manufacture, use, and use-wear of grinding stones (including slabs and mullers) can provide a wealth of information on ancient subsistence strategy and plant food utilization. Ancient residues extracted from stone tools frequently exhibit damage from processing methods, and modern experiments can replicate these morphological changes so that they can be better understood. Here, experiments have been undertaken to dehusk and grind grass grain using stone artifacts. To replicate ancient activities in northern China, we used modern stone tools to dehusk and grind twelve cultivars of foxtail millet (Setaria italica), two cultivars of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and three varieties of green bristlegrass (Setaira viridis). The residues from both used and unused facets of the stone tools were then extracted, and the starch grains studied for morphological features and changes from the native states. The results show that (1) Dehusking did not significantly change the size and morphology of millet starch grains; (2) After grinding, the size of millet starch grains increases up to 1.2 times larger than native grains, and a quarter of the ground millet starch grains bore surface damage and also exhibited distortion of the extinction cross. This indicator will be of significance in improving the application of starch grains to research in the functional inference of grinding stone tools, but we are unable to yet distinguish dehusked forms from native.

Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the foundation of dryland cropping systems in the Central Great Plains. The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of four short‐season spring‐planted crops used to replace summer fallow on the subsequent winter wheat crop. Wheat was seeded into four crop stubbles [spring triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack), dry pea (Pisum sativum L.), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L. Beauv.), and proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)] at sites near Akron, CO, and Sidney, NE, in the fall of 2004 and 2005. These summer fallow replacement crops were planted into silt loam soils at three different soil water levels at planting (low, medium, and high). Winter wheat water use was 3.6 cm greater, and grain yield was 662 kg ha−1 greater in the high water treatment compared with the low water treatment averaged across all sites and years. Winter wheat used an average of 4.3 cm more water following early planted summer crops (triticale and dry pea) than after late planted summer crops (foxtail and proso millet), but this increased water use did not consistently translate into increased grain yield as a result of terminal drought at Sidney in 2006. The high water treatment always had a positive net return. The high cost of pea seed ($3.30 kg−1, USD) strongly reduced profitability. The flexible summer fallow cropping system appears to be most applicable when using short‐duration summer annual forage crops such as triticale and foxtail millet.