Abstract
Abstract. Here we present results of digital modelling of a specific setting of hypogenic carbonic acid speleogenesis (CAS). We study an unconfined aquifer where meteoric water seeps through the vadose zone and becomes saturated with respect to calcite when it arrives at the water table. From below, deep-seated water with high pCO2 and saturated with respect to calcite invades the limestone formation by forced flow. Two flow domains arise that host exclusively water from the meteoric or deep-seated source. They are separated by a water divide. There by dispersion of flow, a fringe of mixing arises and widening of the fractures is caused by mixing corrosion (MC). The evolution of the cave system is determined by its early state. At sites with high rates of fracture widening, regions of higher hydraulic conductivity are created. They attract flow and support one-by-one mixing with maximal dissolution rates. Therefore, the early evolution is determined by karstification originating close to the input of the upwelling water and at the output at a seepage face. In between these regions, a wide fringe of moderate dissolution is present. In the later stage of evolution, this region is divided by constrictions that originate from statistical variations of fracture aperture widths that favour high dissolution rates and focus flow into this region. This MC-fringe instability is an intrinsic property of cave evolution and is present in all scenarios studied. We have investigated the influence of defined regions with higher fracture aperture widths. These determine the cave patterns and suppress MC-fringe instabilities. We have discussed the influence of the ratio of upwelling water flux rates on the rates of meteoric water. This ratio specifies the position of the mixing fringe and consequently that of the cave system. In a further step, we have explored the influence of time-dependent meteoric recharge. Furthermore, we have modelled scenarios where waters are undersaturated with respect to calcite. These findings give important insight into mechanisms of CAS in a special setting of unconfined aquifers. They also have implications for the understanding of corresponding sulfuric acid speleogenesis (SAS).
Highlights
Hydrochemical digital models of speleogenesis are powerful tools for understanding the physical and chemical processes that determine the evolution of caves
We study an unconfined aquifer where meteoric water seeps through the vadose zone and becomes saturated with respect to calcite when it arrives at the water table
We focus on a specific hypothetical case of hypogenic carbonic acid speleogenesis (CAS)
Summary
Hydrochemical digital models of speleogenesis are powerful tools for understanding the physical and chemical processes that determine the evolution of caves. Thermal water saturated with respect to calcite that rises from below gains renewed aggressiveness when cooling and may create caves Such scenarios have been modelled by several authors (Andre and Rajaram, 2005; Rajaram et al, 2009; Chaudhuri et al, 2009, 2013; Gong et al, 2019) and fit to the speleogenetic concept as defined by Klimchouk. 2. Palmer (2000, 2007) suggests a geochemical view, which defines hypogenic caves as “those formed by water in which the aggressiveness has been produced at depth beneath the surface, independent of surface or soil CO2 or other near-surface acid sources.” This definition results from observations in Carlsberg Caverns, New Mexico, USA, where sulfuric acid dominates dissolution of limestone, and from caves in the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA, that are created by carbonic acid speleogenesis (Palmer, 2017). We discuss analogies with SAS and the problems that arise in modelling of SAS
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