Abstract
Because regulatory mechanisms are not fully developed in neonates, they are particularly susceptible to environmental influences on behavior. Events early in life have the potential for multiplicative effects. Perinatal stress appears to alter the function of the HHA axis in an adaptive manner. Optimal levels of stress might therefore be used in the rearing of domestic animals. Further research, including an assessment of animals' welfare, is needed. The early social environment is of critical importance in behavioral ontogeny. Social conditions other than those with which a species has evolved, such as isolation, rearing without conspecifics, or rearing in single-sex groups, can alter later behavior. Effects on agonistic and sexual behavior, in particular, have been well researched. The types of learning involved in primary socialization are not directly known for most farm species, although other features of socialization are well documented. Nutrition plays an obvious role in physical development. Less obviously, it appears that a low plane of nutrition or protein deficiency can permanently impair learning ability through a decrease in the number of brain neurons.
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