Abstract
This study examined the extent to which cognitive ability at 5 years of age predicted language development from 5 to 9 years of age in a population-based sample of children with hearing loss who participated in the Longitudinal Outcomes of Children with Hearing Impairment (LOCHI) study. The developmental outcomes of 81 children with hearing loss were evaluated at 5 and 9 years of age. Hearing loss ranged from mild to severe degrees, and all participants used hearing aids. They all used spoken language as the primary mode of communication and education. Nine-year-old language was assessed using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – 4th edition (CELF-4), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – 4th edition (PPVT-4), and the Expressive Vocabulary Test – 2nd edition (EVT-2). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the extent to which children’s scores on these standardized assessments were predicted by their cognitive ability (non-verbal IQ and verbal working memory) measured at 5 years of age. The influence of early language scores at 5 years and a range of demographic characteristics on language scores at 9 years of age was evaluated. We found that 5-year-old digit span score was a significant predictor of receptive and expressive language, but not receptive or expressive vocabulary, at 9 years of age. Also, 5-year-old non-word repetition test score was a significant predictor of only expressive language and vocabulary, but not receptive language or vocabulary at 9 years of age. After allowing for the effects of non-verbal IQ and 5-year-old receptive vocabulary, early digit span score (but not non-word repetition score) was a significant predictor of expressive and receptive language scores at 9 years of age. The findings shed light on the unique role of early verbal working memory in predicting the development of receptive and expressive language skills and vocabulary skills in children who use hearing aids.
Highlights
Children with hearing loss achieve lower language outcomes, on average, than children with normal hearing
To address the first research question of whether the capacity of the phonological loop assessed at 5 years of age predicted 9year-old language outcomes, we found that higher digit span and non-word repetition scores at 5 years of age were significantly associated with better language and vocabulary skills measured at 9 years of age
5-year-old NRT score was a significant predictor of only expressive language and vocabulary, but not receptive language or vocabulary
Summary
Children with hearing loss achieve lower language outcomes, on average, than children with normal hearing. Does the capacity of the phonological loop, assessed at 5 years of age, predict 9-year-old outcomes in receptive and expressive language and vocabulary in a population-based sample of hearing aid users after controlling for variation in non-verbal cognitive ability and relevant demographic variables? 2. Does the capacity of the phonological loop, assessed at 5 years of age, predict 9-year-old outcomes in receptive and expressive language and vocabulary in a population-based sample of hearing aid users after controlling for 5-yearold receptive vocabulary, non-verbal cognitive ability, and relevant demographic variables? In accordance with the working memory theoretical framework and empirical findings from previous literature with cochlear implant users (e.g., Pisoni et al, 2011), we hypothesized that (1) higher digit span and non-word repetition scores at 5 years of age would be associated with better language and vocabulary outcomes at 9 years of age after controlling for 5-year-old non-verbal ability and relevant demographic variables; and that non-word repetition would be a stronger predictor than digit span (Baddeley et al, 1998). We hypothesized that (2) these associations would remain significant after allowing for the influence of early receptive vocabulary in addition to non-verbal ability and relevant demographic variables
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