Abstract
Mangrove forests sequester a significant amount of organic matter in their sediment and are recognized as an important carbon storage source (i.e., blue carbon, including in seagrass ecosystems and other coastal wetlands). The methane-producing archaea in anaerobic sediments releases methane, a greenhouse gas species. The contribution to total greenhouse gas emissions from mangrove ecosystems remains controversial. However, the intensity CH4 emissions from anaerobic mangrove sediment is known to be sensitive to environmental changes, and the sediment is exposed to oxygen by methanotrophic (CH4-oxidizing) bacteria as well as to anthropogenic impacts and climate change in mangrove forests. This review discusses the major factors decreasing the effect of mangroves on CH4 emissions from sediment, the significance of ecosystem protection regarding forest biomass and the hydrosphere/soil environment, and how to evaluate emission status geospatially. An innovative “digital-twin” system overcoming the difficulty of field observation is required for suggesting sustainable mitigation in mangrove ecosystems, such as a locally/regionally/globally heterogenous environment with various random factors.
Highlights
The carbon (C) sequestered in the biomass and deep sediment of vegetated coastal ecosystems, including mangroves, seagrass beds, and tidal marshes, has been called “blue carbon” [1,2]
This review discusses the major factors decreasing the effect of mangroves on CH4 emission from sediment, the significance of the ecosystem protection regarding forest biomass and the hydrosphere/soil environment, and how to evaluate the geospatially emission status
The magnitude of CH4 flux in mangrove forests and its relative contribution to global warming compared to CO2 flux remains controversial
Summary
The carbon (C) sequestered in the biomass and deep sediment of vegetated coastal ecosystems, including mangroves, seagrass beds, and tidal marshes, has been called “blue carbon” [1,2]. The global area of vegetated ecosystems is one to two orders of magnitude smaller than that of terrestrial forests, the contribution of vegetated coastal habitats per unit area to long-term C sequestration is much greater, which is in part because of their efficiency in trapping suspended matter and associated organic C during tidal inundation [1]. Loss rates vary greatly between countries, ranging from 1% to 20% of the total mangrove forest area, so predicting global mangrove forest changes in the future is difficult [20]. The rapid loss of vegetated coastal ecosystems due to land-use changes has occurred for centuries and has accelerated in recent decades [2]. This review discusses the major factors decreasing the effect of mangroves on CH4 emission from sediment, the significance of the ecosystem protection regarding forest biomass and the hydrosphere/soil environment, and how to evaluate the geospatially emission status
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