Abstract

The inhabitants of the Zaire Province of northern Angola, belonging to different subgroups of the Bakongo, offer an interesting case to study social and agricultural change in what Boserup would call a traditional ‘female farming system’. Since the 1930s, several factors have produced multiple dynamics of change – sometimes abrupt and other times gradual – in both livelihoods and the gender relations of agricultural production. Of these, the paper is going to highlight late colonial intervention, the anticolonial war, the long civil war, the economic boom after the end of the war and the recent economic crisis. While colonial interventions reinforced women’s role as food producers, the wars acted in the opposite direction by increasing the participation of (non-conscripted into the military) men in agriculture for those who took refuge in the then Republic of Congo. The economic boom that followed the end of the civil war opened income-earning opportunities out of agriculture for young men, but the recent fall in the international oil price reversed this trend, and agriculture – as a sole occupation or combined with casual off-farm jobs – became again a way out of hunger and poverty.

Highlights

  • This contribution focuses on the non-linear, disparate and sometimes unpredictable dynamics of change in the gender division of agricultural work in Africa

  • The progressive increase in population density would, according to her, force technological innovation, the adoption of permanent cultivation and the use of the plough. These changes would bring about an increasing participation of men in agricultural work and food production (Boserup 2011 [1970], 7, 8)

  • What happens when the war is over? In what ways do post-war economic conditions shape men’s attitudes towards agriculture? And what has been the role of the recent rise in cereal prices and of the economic crisis in shaping the livelihoods and the perceptions of men in relation to agriculture? This paper makes a step towards filling these knowledge gaps. It zeroes in on a case study of the changing role of agriculture in the livelihoods of Bakongo women and men living in Northen Angola, namely in Mbanza Kongo and its surroundings, and the transformations in gender roles and dynamics brought about

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Summary

Introduction

This contribution focuses on the non-linear, disparate and sometimes unpredictable dynamics of change in the gender division of agricultural work in Africa. It zeroes in on a case study of the changing role of agriculture in the livelihoods of Bakongo women and men living in Northen Angola, namely in Mbanza Kongo and its surroundings, and the transformations in gender roles and dynamics brought about

Results
Conclusion
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