Does it matter whether others are working hard or hardly working? Effects of descriptive norms on attitudes to time theft at work

We argue that employers subject workers to time theft by controlling workers’ time—both on and off the clock. Time theft considers employer control of workers’ time without the promise of pay through unstable scheduling practices as well as beyond their scheduled work hours. We develop a typology of time theft through a discussion of survey and workshop data with retail workers in Los Angeles. We underscore how federal labor law is inadequate to address unstable scheduling and we discuss retail worker organizing and the implications of time theft for labor policy and worker movements.

BackgroundThere are numerous mobile apps for tracking work hours, but only a few of them record work hours automatically instead of relying on manual logging. No apps have been customized for medical staff, whose work schedules are highly complicated as they have both regular hours and on-call duties.ObjectiveThe specific aims of this study were to (1) identify the Staff Hours app users’ GPS-defined work hours, (2) examine the overtime work hours from the app-recorded total work hours and the participants’ self-reported scheduled work hours, and (3) compare these app-recorded total work hours among different occupations.MethodsWe developed an app, Staff Hours, to automatically calculate a user’s work hours via GPS background data. Users can enter their scheduled hours, including regular hours and on-call duties. The app automatically generates overtime reports by comparing the app-recorded total work hours with the user-defined scheduled hours. A total of 183 volunteers (60 females and 123 males; mean age 32.98 years, SD 6.74) were included in this study. Most of the participants (162/183, 88.5%) were medical staff, and their positions were resident physicians (n=89), visiting staff (n=38), medical students (n=10), registered nurses (n=25), and non–health care professionals (non-HCPs; n=21).ResultsThe total work hours (mean 55.69 hours, SD 21.34) of the 183 participants were significantly higher than their scheduled work hours (mean 50.67 hours, SD 21.44; P=.01). Medical staff had significantly longer total work hours (mean 57.01 hours, SD 21.20) than non-HCPs (mean 45.48 hours, SD 20.08; P=.02). Residents (mean 60.38 hours, SD 18.67) had significantly longer work hours than visiting staff (mean 51.42 hours, SD 20.33; P=.03) and non-HCPs (mean 45.48 hours, SD 20.08; P=.004).ConclusionsStaff Hours is the first automatic GPS location–based app designed for medical staff to track work hours and calculate overtime. For medical staff, this app could keep complete and accurate records of work hours in real time, reduce bias, and allow for better complying with labor regulations.

Time theft has been a major issue in organizations that can affect performance and workplace dynamics. However, most previous studies have attributed the creation of time theft to external stimuli, overlooking the individual’s subjective initiative. This study investigates the interplay between Machiavellianism, moral disengagement, laissez-faire leadership, time theft, and gender differences within these interactions in terms of individual subjective initiatives. Data were collected from 350 employees in Chinese enterprises through a two-stage cross-sectional design and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling. The findings demonstrate that Machiavellianism is positively associated with time theft (falsifying working hours and manipulating the speed of work), with moral disengagement mediating this relationship. Laissez-faire leadership intensifies the relationship between Machiavellianism and moral disengagement, thereby exacerbating time theft. Gender differences emerged, males demonstrate a stronger association between Machiavellianism and falsifying work hours. By integrating self-presentation and moral disengagement theories into organizational ethics, this research underscores the proactive influence of individual traits on unethical behavior. It further highlights the pivotal role of leadership styles in ethical decision-making, advocating for balanced leadership strategies to mitigate workplace deviance.

Tolerance of transgressions can influence the social cognitive and moral development of children and adolescents. Given the prevalent tolerance for bribery throughout the developing world and in China, the present research identified bribery as a serious transgression and investigated the various effects of moral evaluations and descriptive norms on transgression tolerance with increasing age. Thus, two studies examined these effects among primary, middle, and high school students ( N = 972, 10-, 13-, and 16-year-olds). In Study 1, students’ transgression tolerance was negatively influenced by moral evaluations, and no age trend emerged. However, students reported more transgression tolerance with age owing to their increasing understanding of descriptive norms. In Study 2, the descriptive norms were manipulated: individuals in the high descriptive norm condition showed greater transgression tolerance than those in the low descriptive norm condition. An increasing tolerance of transgressions was observed only for those in the high descriptive norm condition. The effect of descriptive norms was found to contribute to the transgression tolerance trend.

Pregaming (consuming several alcoholic drinks prior to going to a bar or party) has become a common practice on many college campuses. We propose that students often rely on descriptive norms when making decisions about pregaming. In Study 1, we provided undergraduate students with norm information indicating that relatively few college students regularly engage in pregaming behavior. Female students receiving this information engaged in pregaming significantly less often the following week than female students who received no norm information. The rate of pregaming among male students was not affected by the norm information. The effect of norm information on pregaming was replicated in Study 2 using only female students. In addition, providing information about gender-specific norms had a greater impact on pregaming behavior than presenting norm data for the general student body only. The findings indicate that descriptive norms play an important role in pregaming behavior and suggest avenues for intervention programs.

The prevailing viewpoint has long depicted employee time theft as inherently detrimental. However, this perspective may stem from a limited understanding of the underlying motives that drive such behavior. Time theft can paradoxically be motivated by neutral and even laudable intentions, such as promoting work efficiency, thus rendering it potentially beneficial and constructive. Across three mixed-methods studies, we explore the motives behind employee time theft, develop and validate an instrument to assess these motives, and examine how they differentially predict time theft behavior. Specifically, in Study 1, we use a qualitative method and identify 11 types of time theft motives. Study 2 embarks on the development of measures of these motives, subsequently validating their factor structure. Study 3 examines their incremental variance in predicting time theft behavior by controlling for personality and demographic variables. Overall, these studies reveal that employees' engagement in time theft can be driven not solely by self-oriented motives but also by others- and work-oriented motives. Further, each of these motives provides incremental value in understanding time theft behavior. Implications for both research and practice emanating from these findings are also discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Time theft is a disservice to the organization, both economically and productively. This research aims to examine the effect of transformational leadership and organizational justice on employee time theft in Mandailing Natal Regency. Sample of this research is civil servant (N=377) at 34 government institution in Mandailing Natal Regency. This type of research is correlational research. The method used to measure variables using self-report. Data analysis using multiple linear regression. The result showed that transformational leadership did not have a significant effect on the time theft (β = -0,032 p>0,05), meanwhile organizational justice have a significant effect on time theft (β = -0,209 p<0,05). The negative regression coefficient value showed the direction of the negative relationship between the organizational justice and time theft, means that the higher the organizational justice felt by employees, the lower the chances of that person committing time theft. Vice versa, the lower organizational justice felt by employees, the higher the chance that person will commit time theft behavior. Keywords: Time Theft, Transformational Leadership, Organizational Justice.

Time theft, defined as employee engagement in non-work-related activities during work hours, imposes significant organizational costs; however, its underlying causes remain largely underexplored. This study addresses this theoretical gap by examining the combined influence of Dark Triad personality traits (psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism) and key situational factors (general loneliness, social media addiction, and workplace boredom) on three distinct dimensions of time theft: classic, technological, and social. The analysis, based on survey data from 264 private and public sector employees in Sakarya, Turkey, revealed that psychopathy and Machiavellianism initially correlated strongly with classic and technological time theft. Nevertheless, their predictive ability was significantly attenuated when situational variables were introduced into the full regression model. Specifically, workplace boredom and social media addiction emerged as robust predictors, exerting a dominant influence over the Dark Triad traits. Neither narcissism, general loneliness, nor standard demographic variables demonstrated a significant relationship with any dimension of time theft. The paper concludes by discussing the conceptual implications of these findings within Turkey's traditional collectivist culture and proposing avenues for future research and practical intervention strategies.

ABSTRACTBased on the theory of normative social behavior (Rimal & Real, 2005), this study examined the effects of descriptive norms, close versus distal peer injunctive norms, and interdependent self-construal on college students’ intentions to consume alcohol. Results of a cross-sectional study conducted among U.S. college students (N = 581) found that descriptive norms, close, and distal peer injunctive norms had independent effects on college students’ intentions to consume alcohol. Furthermore, close peer injunctive norms moderated the effects of descriptive norms on college students’ intentions to consume alcohol and the interaction showed different patterns among students with a strong and weak interdependent self-construal. High levels of close peer injunctive norms weakened the relationship between descriptive norms and intentions to consume alcohol among students with a strong interdependent self-construal but strengthened the relationship between descriptive norms and intentions to consume alcohol among students with a weak interdependent self-construal. Implications of the findings for norms-based research and college drinking interventions are discussed.

In today's fast-paced corporate environment, leadership styles play a crucial role in shaping employee behavior and organizational outcomes. This study investigates the indirect effects of laissez-faire leadership on employee time theft, a prevalent issue that impacts productivity and organizational efficiency. Laissez-faire leadership, characterized by a hands-off approach and lack of direct supervision, can create an environment where employees feel less accountable for their time management. This research utilizes a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews, to explore the relationship between laissez-faire leadership and time theft behaviors among employees. The findings suggest that laissez-faire leadership indirectly fosters time theft by reducing employee engagement and increasing job dissatisfaction. Additionally, the study highlights the mediating role of organizational culture and peer influence in exacerbating or mitigating time theft. By understanding these dynamics, organizations can develop more effective leadership strategies and interventions to minimize time theft and enhance overall productivity.

Time theft is a costly yet poorly understood phenomenon in business organizations. Although research has addressed workplace deviance on the part of employees, much of this work has focused on severe forms of deviance. The relative attention given to nonaggressive, production-oriented and organizationally targeted deviant behavior such as time theft is much less, despite its serious consequences. We contribute to this literature by examining the effect of abusive supervision on time theft in the context of Vietnam. We utilize a sociocognitive theory-based reasoning to propose a model. We found that time theft is the outcome of a simultaneous interaction between abusive supervision, moral disengagement, and equity sensitivity. Our model and empirical results suggest that a complex process of social information processing, with several countervailing factors balancing each other, influences time theft. We provide a discussion of these results, directions for future research, and the limitations of our study.

Background: There are currently no field data about the effect of implementing European Working Time Directive (EWTD)-compliant rotas in a medical setting. Surveys of doctors’ subjective opinions on shift work have not provided reliable objective data with which to evaluate its efficacy.Aim: We therefore studied the effects on patient's safety and doctors’ work-sleep patterns of implementing an EWTD-compliant 48 h work week in a single-blind intervention study carried out over a 12-week period at the University Hospitals Coventry & Warwickshire NHS Trust. We hypothesized that medical error rates would be reduced following the new rota.Methods: Nineteen junior doctors, nine studied while working an intervention schedule of <48 h per week and 10 studied while working traditional weeks of <56 h scheduled hours in medical wards. Work hours and sleep duration were recorded daily. Rate of medical errors (per 1000 patient-days), identified using an established active surveillance methodology, were compared for the Intervention and Traditional wards. Two senior physicians blinded to rota independently rated all suspected errors.Results: Average scheduled work hours were significantly lower on the intervention schedule [43.2 (SD 7.7) (range 26.0–60.0) vs. 52.4 (11.2) (30.0–77.0) h/week; P < 0.001], and there was a non-significant trend for increased total sleep time per day [7.26 (0.36) vs. 6.75 (0.40) h; P = 0.095]. During a total of 4782 patient-days involving 481 admissions, 32.7% fewer total medical errors occurred during the intervention than during the traditional rota (27.6 vs. 41.0 per 1000 patient-days, P = 0.006), including 82.6% fewer intercepted potential adverse events (1.2 vs. 6.9 per 1000 patient-days, P = 0.002) and 31.4% fewer non-intercepted potential adverse events (16.6 vs. 24.2 per 1000 patient-days, P = 0.067). Doctors reported worse educational opportunities on the intervention rota.Conclusions: Whilst concerns remain regarding reduced educational opportunities, our study supports the hypothesis that a 48 h work week coupled with targeted efforts to improve sleep hygiene improves patient safety.

Blood, sweat, and the influence of others: The effect of descriptive norms on muscular endurance and task self-efficacy

Research suggests that people's perceptions of the typical physical activity behaviors of others-descriptive norms-shape their own physical activity. However, prior work has primarily used cross-sectional designs, focused on people's physical activity intentions or self-reported overall physical activity, and failed to attend to how the normative referent affects the norm-behavior relationship. In a pre-registered experiment, we manipulated the descriptive norm to explore its effect on perceived exertion during, and objectively assessed performance on, an exercise (running) task. We also measured the strength of participants' social identification as a member of the norm reference group as a potential moderator. Following a baseline trial, participants (N=78) were either told that their baseline score on the running task was below average (high norm condition) or above average (low norm condition) compared to members of the reference group. Participants in both conditions tended to perform better in Trial 2 than Trial 1. However, participants in the high norm condition improved their performance significantly (2.5 times) more than participants in the low norm condition. Social identification moderated the effect of the norm manipulation on perceived exertion. High identifiers tended to exert themselves less than low identifiers during Trial 2 if they were told they were above average, whereas if told they were below average, high identifiers exerted themselves slightly more than low identifiers. Results provide evidence that descriptive norm messages can improve people's performance on physically demanding tasks, and indicate that descriptive physical activity norms may be more influential when the norm reference group is subjectively meaningful. Opportunities to fruitfully deploy norm messages in applied contexts are discussed.

This study examined the relationships between adolescent alcohol use and outcome expectancies and descriptive norms for a sample of American Indian and white youth living on or near reservations. Three outcome expectancies proposed by the theory of normative social behavior (perceived benefits to self, perceived benefits to others, and anticipatory socialization) were examined. Survey data were collected from high school students in the 2009-2010, 2010-2011, and 2011-2012 school years. Stronger descriptive norms for use and higher perceived benefits to self from use were associated with alcohol use in the last month, drunkenness in the last month, and binge drinking. Perceived benefits to self also moderated the relationship between descriptive norms and both alcohol use in the last month and binge drinking, and the effect of descriptive norms on use became more robust as perceived benefits to self increased. Outcome expectancies of perceived benefits to others and anticipatory socialization did not moderate the relationship between norms and alcohol use. Implications for prevention are discussed.