Abstract
Several studies on cultural clusters classify Japan as independent, meaning that wherever Japanese firms go abroad, they must adapt to very different environments. This study examines how Japanese firms treat deterrent effects of geographic distance, cultural distance, and political hazards and whether the deterrent effects may vary with firm size, firm age, and ownership solution. Results using data on Japanese firms' outbound mergers and acquisitions (M&A) from 2010 to 2019 reveal that (1) only the deterrent effect of geographic distance is absolute. (2) Larger firms with larger slack resources in their home country are less concerned about geographic distances and political hazards. (3) Older firms, exposed to typical practices and norms for a long time, are less adaptable to cultural distances. (4) The deterrent effect of geographic distance is weaker for complete control mode on the one hand, on the other hand, the moderating effect of complete control mode on political hazards hinges on firm size and age due to trade‐offs between integration benefits and resource/experience constraints.
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