Abstract
BackgroundThe role of zoos in conservation programmes has increased significantly in last decades, and the health of captive animals is essential to guarantee success of such programmes. However, zoo birds suffer from parasitic infections, which often are caused by malaria parasites and related haemosporidians. Studies determining the occurrence and diversity of these parasites, aiming better understanding infection influence on fitness of captive birds, are limited.MethodsIn 2011–2015, the prevalence and diversity of Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. was examined in blood samples of 677 captive birds from the São Paulo Zoo, the largest zoo in Latin America. Molecular and microscopic diagnostic methods were used in parallel to detect and identify these infections.ResultsThe overall prevalence of haemosporidians was 12.6%. Parasites were mostly detected by the molecular diagnosis, indicating that many birds harbour subclinical or abortive infections. In this project, birds of 17 orders (almost half of all the orders currently accepted in taxonomy of birds), 29 families, and 122 species, were tested, detecting positive individuals in 27% of bird species. Birds from the Anatidae were the most prevalently infected (64.7% of all infected animals). In all, infections with parasites of the genus Plasmodium (overall prevalence 97.6%) predominated when compared to those of the genus Haemoproteus (2.4%). In total, 14 cytochrome b (cytb) lineages of Plasmodium spp. and 2 cytb lineages of Haemoproteus spp. were recorded. Eight lineages were new. One of the reported lineages was broad generalist while others were reported in single or a few species of birds. Molecular characterization of Haemoproteus ortalidum was developed.ConclusionThis study shows that many species of birds are at risk in captivity. It is difficult to stop haemosporidian parasite transmission in zoos, but is possible to reduce the infection rate by treating the infected animals or/and while keeping them in facilities free from mosquitoes. Protocols of quarantine should be implemented whenever an animal is transferred between bird maintaining institutions. This is the first survey of haemosporidians in captive birds from different orders maintained in zoos. It is worth emphasizing the necessity of applying practices to control these parasites in management and husbandry of animals in captivity.
Highlights
The role of zoos in conservation programmes has increased significantly in last decades, and the health of captive animals is essential to guarantee success of such programmes
Wild animals have been maintained in captivity since ancient Egypt, and this represented the status and power. These animals started broadly kept in private collections, closed to general public, mostly for entertainment [1]. These collections were gradually transformed into zoos, which since 1960s, their main concern has turned to species conservation by providing them with a healthy environment
The objectives of this research were (1) to determine distribution and identity of the lineages of malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) and phylogenetically related Haemoproteus spp. in São Paulo Zoo, (2) to verify if there is some seasonality in the parasite prevalence, (3) to suggest some practical solutions to minimize parasite transmission
Summary
The role of zoos in conservation programmes has increased significantly in last decades, and the health of captive animals is essential to guarantee success of such programmes. Wild animals have been maintained in captivity since ancient Egypt, and this represented the status and power Around eighteenth century, these animals started broadly kept in private collections, closed to general public, mostly for entertainment [1]. These animals started broadly kept in private collections, closed to general public, mostly for entertainment [1] Through the years, these collections were gradually transformed into zoos, which since 1960s, their main concern has turned to species conservation by providing them with a healthy environment. High density of birds is common in captivity; some species can be exposed to parasites to which they are evolutionary non-adapted and have no competent immune response against such infections [6]
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