Abstract
Animals often face changing environments, and behavioral flexibility allows them to rapidly and adaptively respond to abiotic factors that vary more or less regularly. However, abiotic factors that affect prey species do not necessarily affect their predators. Still, the prey’s response might affect the predator indirectly, yet evidence from the wild for such a classical bottom-up effect of abiotic factors shaping several trophic levels remains sparse. In many aquatic environments, daily changes in oxygen concentrations occur frequently. When oxygen levels drop to hypoxic levels, many fishes respond with aquatic surface respiration (ASR), during which they obtain oxygen by skimming the upper, oxygenated surface layer. By increasing time at the surface, fish become more vulnerable to fish-eating birds. We explored these cascading effects in a sulfidic spring system that harbors the endemic sulphur molly (Poecilia sulphuraria) as prey species and several fish-eating bird species. Sulfide-rich springs pose harsh conditions as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is lethal to most metazoans and reduces dissolved oxygen (DO). Field sampling during three daytimes indicated that water temperatures rose from morning to (after)noon, resulting in the already low DO levels to decrease further, while H2S levels showed no diurnal changes. The drop in DO levels was associated with a decrease in time spent diving in sulphur mollies, which corresponded with an increase in ASR. Interestingly, the laboratory-estimated threshold at which the majority of sulphur mollies initiate ASR (ASR50: <1.7 mg/L DO) was independent of temperature and this value was exceeded daily when hypoxic stress became more severe toward noon. As fish performed ASR, large aggregations built up at the water surface over the course of the day. As a possible consequence of fish spending more time at the surface, we found high activity levels of fish-eating birds at noon and in the afternoon. Our study reveals that daily fluctuations in water’s oxygen levels have the potential to alter predator-prey interactions profoundly and thus highlights the joined actions of abiotic and biotic factors shaping the evolution of a prey species.
Highlights
Almost all organisms have to cope with changing environments during their lifetime (Bernhardt et al, 2020)
While mornings were associated with temperatures below 26.5◦C and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels around 2 mg/L, temperatures rose and DO decreased to severely hypoxic levels toward later parts of the day (i.e.,
We found no evidence for a diurnal cycle (F2,14 = 0.4, p = 0.67) or an association with temperature (Pearson’s rho = −0.18, t = −0.7, p = 0.5, n = 17) or DO (Pearson’s rho = 0.23, t = 0.9, p = 0.4, n = 17)
Summary
Almost all organisms have to cope with changing environments during their lifetime (Bernhardt et al, 2020). During periods of unfavorable water conditions, mobile species will seek out habitat refuges, but therein experience increased pressure of competition and predation (e.g., demersal species such as blue crab, croaker and spot in a river estuary with spatially and temporally dynamic hypoxia; Eby and Crowder, 2002). Two species may respond differently to the same environmental condition, which can drastically shift interaction outcomes in favor of the one with greater tolerance or exploitation capacity [e.g., water turbidity affecting damselfly–fish interactions (Van de Meutter et al, 2005), temperature and oxygen affecting prey selection of an predatory insect (Cockrell, 1984), hypoxia increasing susceptibility of benthic prey to fish predation (Long and Seitz, 2008) or decreasing a fish predator’s foraging efficiency (Hedges and Abrahams, 2015)]
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