Abstract
In this study, we analyzed 27 pharmaceuticals in liquid and solid phase samples collected from the unit processes of four different sewage treatment plants (STPs) to evaluate their distribution and behavior of the pharmaceuticals. The examination of the relative distributions of various categories of pharmaceuticals in the influent showed that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were the most dominant. While the relative distribution of antibiotics in the influent was not high (i.e., 3%–5%), it increased to 14%–30% in the effluent. In the four STPs, the mass load of the target pharmaceuticals was reduced by 88%–95% mainly in the biological treatment process, whereas the ratio of pharmaceuticals in waste sludge to those in the influent (w/w) was only 2%. In all the STPs, the removal efficiencies for the stimulant caffeine, NSAIDs (acetaminophen, naproxen, and acetylsalicylic acid), and the antibiotic cefradine were high; they were removed mainly by biological processes. Certain compounds, such as the NSAID ketoprofen, contrast agent iopromide, lipid regulator gemfibrozil, and antibiotic sulfamethoxazole, showed varying removal efficiencies depending on the contribution of biodegradation and sludge sorption. In addition, a quantitative meta-analysis was performed to compare the pharmaceutical removal efficiencies of the biological treatment processes in the four STPs, which were a membrane bioreactor (MBR) process, sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process, anaerobic–anoxic–oxic (A2O) process, and moving-bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) process. Among the biological processes, the removal efficiency was in the order of MBR > SBR > A2O > MBBR. Among the tertiary treatment processes investigated, powdered activated carbon showed the highest removal efficiency of 18%–63% for gemfibrozil, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, atenolol, cimetidine, and trimethoprim.
Highlights
With rising living standards, the introduction of new chemical substances, and the development of medical technology, new trace contaminants are being detected in water environments, which has drawn significant social attention [1,2]
Similar to the results of this study, high levels of fluoroquinolone and macrolide antibiotics were detected in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influent in Europe, North America, and Asia [27]
Sulfamethoxazole showed the highest concentration among sulfonamide antibiotics at 120 ng/L, but the concentration of sulfamethazine was below the limit of quantification (LOQ)
Summary
The introduction of new chemical substances, and the development of medical technology, new trace contaminants are being detected in water environments, which has drawn significant social attention [1,2]. Among various types of trace contaminants, pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, analgesics, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are mainly used to treat human and animal diseases, develop the growth accelerator industry, and improve. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 687; doi:10.3390/ijerph17030687 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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