Abstract
Nowadays, there are two leading sea sounding technologies: the multibeam echo sounder and the multiphase echo sounder (also known as phase-difference side scan sonar or bathymetric side scan sonar). Both solutions have their advantages and disadvantages, and they can be perceived as complementary to each other. The article reviews the development of interferometric echo sounding array configurations and the various methods applied to determine the direction-of-arrival. “Interferometric echo sounder” is a broad term, applied to various devices that primarily utilize phase difference measurements to estimate the direction-of-arrival. The article focuses on modifications to the interferometric sonar array that have led to the state-of-the-art multiphase echo sounder. The main algorithms for classical and modern interferometric echo sounder direction-of-arrival estimation are also outlined. The accuracy of direction-of-arrival estimation methods is dependent on the configuration of the array and external and internal noise sources. The main sources of errors, which influence the accuracy of the phase difference measurements, are also briefly characterized. The article ends with a review of the current research into improvements in the accuracy of interferometric echo sounding and the application of the principle of interferometric in other devices.
Highlights
Acoustic techniques for surveying the sea bottom have been continuously developing since the early years of the 20th century
In the description provided below, we only focus on those specific to interferometric measurements
Since synthetic aperture sonar (SAS) devices are mounted on underwater vehicles, the multipath echoes caused by proximity to the sea surface are absent, and simple—assuming one echo—difference interferometry or the Vernier technique might be used [55]
Summary
Acoustic techniques for surveying the sea bottom have been continuously developing since the early years of the 20th century. The SBES uses a simple echolocation method that sounds the sea depth directly below the acoustic transducer of a small area, the so-called seabed footprint (Figure 1a). This records the depth profile along the path travelled by the vessel. Regardless of the success and widespread use of SBES, the demands for precise, high-resolution charting required more efficient means of surveying the sea [2,3]. To meet these requests, three categories of bathymetric survey systems have been designed: 2.
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