Abstract
The Elementary School Journal Volume 84, Number 2 o 1983 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0013-5984/84/8402-0007$01.00 A variety of large-scale field studies have consistently shown that the average reading and math achievement levels of lowincome, minority students usually are at the 20th-28th percentiles by the end of third grade, virtually a year below grade level (Moliter, Watkin, Napior, & Proper 1977; National Assessment of Educational Progress 1979; Ozenne et al. 1976). The educational changes-both institutional and instructional-necessary to improve this situation have been difficult to ac-
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